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• Chapter 5 discusses qualitative analysis, which relies on interpreting visual and verbal data to reflect everyday experience.
• Chapter 6 will then discuss content analysis, which systematically focuses on communication message characteristics
• Chapter 7 discusses survey research, with measurement sophistication, and greater use of quantifications
• Chapter 8 discusses longitudinal research and chapter 9 concludes part two with a discussion of experimental methods.
• Qualitative research does not have a clear definition, as some resist limiting the technique through definitions.
• Qualitative refers to a broad philosophy, a methodology, and certain research techniques.
• Neuman and Blaikie suggest positivist, interpretive, and critical approaches to social science research are distinct
• Positivist, interpretive, and critical approaches each represent a paradigm for research, which is an accepted set of theories, procedures, and assumptions.
• Paradigms rely on axioms or universally accepted statements that are related to the research methodologies selected.
• The positivist paradigm is the oldest and most widely used in media research, which is derived from philosophers such as Comte and Mill.
• Interpretive social science traces roots to Max Weber and Wilhelm Dilthey, aiming to understand meaning made by individuals.
• The interpretive paradigm became popular during the 1970s and 1980s, gaining visibility into the 1990s and remained popular into the new century.
• The critical paradigm draws on analysis models used in the humanities, relating to the distribution of political power in society
• The text will compare positivist and interpretive paradigms for simplification, with more detail on critical paradigm available through Hall (1982).
• The positivist paradigm differs from the interpretive paradigm along three dimensions including philosophy of reality, views of the individual, and aims.
• Positivist researchers see reality as objective and apart from the researcher, while interpretive researchers see reality as subjective and part of a research process.
• Positivist researchers believe humans are similar and seek general behaviors, while interpretive researchers believe humans are fundamentally different and cannot be pigeonholed.
• Positivist researchers generate general laws of behavior, and interpretive researchers provide unique explanations of situations.
• Positivist researchers strive for breadth, while interpretive researchers strive for depth.
• The following major research areas demonstrate significant differences between the positivist and interpretive approaches: role of the researcher, design, setting, measurement instruments, and theory building.
• The positivist researcher is separate objectivity, data with active participation, and the interpretive researcher is an integral part of the data.
• The positivist design of a study is determined before it begins, while the interpretive design evolves during the research.
• Positivists limit confounding variables in controlled settings, and interpretivists conduct studies with natural flow.
• Positivists have independent measurement instruments, while interpretivists are the sole instrument.
• Positivists test theory through research, while interpretivists develop theories through data.
• Research methods should be used in the same way, regardless of differing of beliefs as methods are not conscious of the philosophy.
• It is not unusual to find a positivist using focus groups or intensive interviewing as a method commonly categorized as qualitative.

Methodology and Methods

• Methodology is the philosophical assumptions of the process itself, while methods are a specific technique for gathering information that follow methodology assumptions.
• Quantitative methodology generally adopts the positive paradigm, and qualitative researchers critical paradigm generally follow methodology of the humanities.

Mixed Methods Research

• The mixed methods research is a approach that is described by Creswell meaning the researcher analyses and collects both qualitative/quantitative data in a program of sustained inquiry
• A qualitative approach is abbreviated QUAL, while QUAN denotes a quantitative approach.
• Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time with equal weight in the concurrent designs
• A survey questionnaire or interview that contains both closed-ended quantitative items and open-ended qualitative items is an example of that concurrent design.
• There three sequential designs that consist of one method that precedes the other
• Such as the example of a researcher might conduct focus groups the generate the items to be used in a survey
• Another example is if a researcher follows up a survey by conducting intensive interviews with some respondents in order to fully understand the results
• Mixed methods approach has several advantages such as produce evidence for a conclusion through a convergence of findings
• There also the benefits from answering a boarder rage of questions due to not being confined to a single method
• Some disadvantages involve more the time and effort due to its essentially two studies and the researcher must be skilled in both, other wise a research team is required for assistance with conflicting results.
• It becoming more hard to find methodologist stuck in one epistemology and quantitative are using naturalistics approaches the compliment tests etc
• Qualitative research allows questions to be changed, while quantitative research questions are static and standardized.

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

• Data analysis in qualitative studies is done early and continues throughout the whole project .
• Qualitative researchers use an inductive method such as data as are collected, relevant to some topic and are grouped into appropriate and meaningful categories; explanations then emerge from the data
• Data Reduction refers is a step towards helping work with large amounted data by first organizing the information along a more temporal dimension from chronological
• The data is assigned to multiple copies and files of the notes and transcripts are saved as mandatory
• Data is also organized into a preliminary category system.
• Data are arranged in chronological order, source coded, backed up, and made into a preliminary category system might assist with initial data processes
• Commercial software programs used to analyze and present data, including NVivo and HyperRESEARCH
• Epoche allows the researcher to put aside personal viewpoints so that the phenomenon under study may be seen for itself and is described by Maykut and Morehouse
• The constant comparative technique / Ground Theory involves comparatively assigning incidents to categories, elaborating refining categories, Searching for relationships/themes among categories and simplifying/integrating data into a coherent theoretical structure
• Analytical strategy blends both Construction hypothesis and data analysis
• The analytic induction strategy's process consists of six steps
  • Define a topic of interest and develop a hypothesis
  • Study a case to see whether the hypothesis works and reformulate it if not working
  • Study other cases until the hypothesis is in refined form
  • Look for/ reformulate any that might disprove the hypothesis
  • Then continue until the adequately test with the hypothesis

Verification: Reliability and Validity

• Qualitative researchers need to be alert to issues that call credibility into question, including the completeness of data, selective perception and reactivity
• Key factors that helps build credibility are 1. Multiple methods of data collection 2. Audit Trail 3. Member checks and 4. Research Team
• Debriefing is method to aid Verification involving an individual external outside the project questioning the meanings/methods of the researcher

In-Person and Online

• While the Internet has opened new possibilities for qualitative researchers, there are the involved advantages/disadvantages
• The strength of one approach is usually a weakness in the other approach
• The data are “richer,”, there isn't a bias for or against vocal or outgoing respondents with online, projective test and product demonstrations are possible with in-person
• Group dynamics can offer clues to analysis and interpretation and expenses are often substantially lower than others
• With online is cover wide geographic areas, neither person has to be int he same spot and allows recruiting the busy people.
• Field observations are classified using 2 major dimensions " degree which the researcher participate" / " degree which the observation is concealed"
• There four quadrants of Field observations
• First Quadrant is a overt observation
• Quadrant two is a overt participation
• quadrant three is is an observer but not aware of being studied
• Fourth quadrant is a participation but identified as a researcher

advantages field of an observation

• Its unique advantages such as mass media problems/ questions are unable to be studied with different methodology.
• It allows definition of necessary the frame a hypothesis and isolate the different independent variables , observation is used for data gather due not depending on their ability to report of behavior
• Field and and observation used to to obtain access to the unable other wise be and examined group.

Field observations have have some disadvantages.

• Such as bad for valid externals and representative problems,
• Observer biases that distort the study which is why its not used solely in research.
• Observations do suffer from reactivity of influences to behaviour even with other methods it often used as the criticism
• It also help resolve possible personal from talk and and people from.

Field Observation Techniques

• The most that is difficult setting to enter is one to keep that restricted since participants of to keep to activities confidential

Sampling's

• It comes with more ambiguity especially determining how individuals, some goals are a key parameter by used for examine
• sampling are where observer draw the are and only
• It has five major drawings such as recording, framing or a catalogued index it the out the
• Notebook notes or a recording analysis

Data Collection techniques

• Diary is one that researchers their other feeling
• Unobtrusive to problems that research measurement data for data.

Focus Group Technique

• This comes with four defining characteristics: focus group
  • Involvement in the is a people groups has the. Also comes with more qualitative
  • Focus is the not to any.
• The sample depend are are and month
• Speak the much in are for
• Speak in much they need
• The more the groups are the moderator will always have great information