Groups in Sociology

• Social interactions involve conformity to group norms and expectations.
• Conformity: The extent to which a person complies with group norms/expectations.
• Individual groups often have their own conformity norms and expectations.

Group Conformity Process

• Entering a group as a new member.
• Recognizing norms and expectations via direct (rules) or indirect (observing members) socialization.
• Inheriting and conforming to norms/expectations.
• Solomon Asch's conformity studies illustrate this process.
  • A participant unaware of confederate actors hears incorrect answers from the group.
  • The participant conforms to perceived pressure and answers incorrectly.
• Deviance: Failure to conform to group/society norms/expectations, often viewed negatively.
• Value of conformity varies by group, society, and culture.

Individualist Culture

• Individualism is highly valued.
• Non-conformity is seen as positive, and unique behavior is often praised (e.g., "gutsy," "innovative").

Collectivist Culture

• Individualism is seen as negative.
• Non-conformity is perceived as different, with pressure to conform.
• Societies can be broadly classified as individualist vs. collectivist.
• Western societies are generally more individualistic.
• Eastern societies are generally more collectivist.

Impact of Cultures on Behavior

• Cultures impact how individuals think about their behavior during group tasks.
• Self-serving bias is prominent in individualist cultures.
  • Successful tasks are attributed to oneself.
  • Unsuccessful tasks are blamed on others.
• Self-effacing bias is prominent in collectivist cultures.
  • Successful tasks are attributed to others.
  • Unsuccessful tasks are blamed on oneself.
• The presence of others influences behavior, leading to the bystander effect.
• Bystander Effect: The more people present during an event needing intervention, the less likely someone will intervene.
• The bystander effect is attributed to the diffusion of responsibility, assuming someone else will take action.

Formal Organizations

• Formal organizations: Codified groups with defined structures, classified into three types.

Normative/Voluntary

• Based on shared interest, voluntary.
• Provides intangible benefits like feeling rewarding and connectedness, but little to no tangible benefits.
  • Example: amateur sports leagues.

Coercive

• Based on required membership.
• Benefit is resocialization.
• Does not develop connectedness between members.
  • Example: prisons.

Utilitarian

• Provides tangible benefits like education or money.
• Membership is not forced, but there are drawbacks to non-membership.
• Provides some connectedness between members.
  • Example: Schools and workplaces.
• Bureaucracies often characterize formal organizations.
• Ideal type: Max Weber proposed an "ideal type" for bureaucracies, not "ideal" as in best, but as a collective concept with typical components.
• Weber identified four components of bureaucracies' ideal type.

Hierarchy of Authority

• The organization has a structured chain of command.
• Each person/office reports to and manages others.

Clear Division of Labor

• Each person has a specific job with responsibilities.

Explicit Rules

• Organizational rules are formally written and standardized.

Impersonality

• Decisions are regimented, specific, and based on documented rationales.
• Often in the form of meritocracy: Membership is based on documented performance and skills.
  • Examples: Units sold, transcripts, SAT/ACT scores.
• Bureaucracies can be helpful when tasks fit the structure.
• Helpful especially during the Industrial Revolution.
• Increasingly seen as unhelpful now.
• Bureaucracies are slow to change and nearly impossible to stop once started.
• They can be subject to significant bias concerning performance/skill development and recognition.
• Iron Rule of Oligarchy: Formal organizations and bureaucracies are often controlled by a few elite members at the top.
  • Examples: CEOs, COOs, Boards of Directors.
• McDonaldization of Society: Formal organizations become like bureaucracies, focused on efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control.
• Formal organizations lose their unique nature and become generic.
  • Examples: Supermarkets vs. farmer's markets.