Group 1 Metals: Properties and Reactions

Quantum numbers and electron configurations

• Every electron in an atom is described by four different quantum numbers.
• The first three quantum numbers (n, l, ml) define the specific orbital of interest.
• The fourth quantum number (ms) defines how many electrons can occupy that orbital.

Principal quantum number (n)

• 'n' has positive integral values from 1 to 8 that can technically go to infinity. (n = 1, 2,...,8)
• 'n' indicates the average distance of an electron from the nucleus like the innermost electron shell.
• The innermost electron shell has a principal quantum of 1.
• This value specifies the energy of the electron as well as the size of its orbital.
• All orbitals sharing an 'n' value reside in the same shell, also known as the level.
• Hydrogen atom with n=1 means the electron is in its ground state, while n=2 signifies an excited state.
• For a given 'n' value, the total number of orbitals is n².
• As 'n' increases, the energies of the orbitals also increase.
• The shell with n=1 is called the first shell, the shell with n=2 is the second shell, and so on.

Angular or orbital quantum number (l)

• l = 0,..., n-1.
• This number specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular '"n" number.
• It divides the shells into subshells, (also known as sublevels), which are smaller orbital groupings.
• A letter code avoids confusion when identifying 'l' to avoid confusion with 'n'.
• Common code conversion is seen as:

0 = s 1 = p 2 = d 3 = f 4 = g 5 = h

• Some examples:

Subshell with n=2 and l=1 = 2p subshell If n=3 and l=0 = 3s subshell

• The value of 'l' also slightly affects the subshell's energy, which increases with 'l' (s < p < d < f).

Magnetic quantum number (ml)

• ml = -l, ..., 0, ..., +l.
• 'ml' specifies the orientation, in space, of an orbital that has a given energy ('n') and shape ('l').
• This number divides the subshell into individual electron-holding orbitals.
• The number of orbitals in each subshell is given by 2l+1; where the s subshell has one orbital while the p subshell has three.

Spin quantum number (ms)

• ms = +¹/₂ or -¹/₂
• 'ms' indicates the orientation of the spin axis of an electron that can only spin in one of two directions.
• According to the Pauli exclusion principle (Wolfgang Pauli, Nobel Prize 1945), no two electrons within the same atom can have identical values for all four quantum numbers.
• Only two electrons can occupy any single orbital, and two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
• An electron's spin generates a magnetic field oriented in one of two directions.
• When two electrons occupy the same orbital, and their spins must be opposite each other, they are said to be paired.
• Paired spins result in substances that are not attracted to magnets, known as diamagnetic substances.
• When more electrons that spin in one direction than another exist in an atom, the unpaired electrons cause an attraction to magnets, known as paramagnetism.

Determine possible values of quantum numbers for n=2

• For n=2, I lies in the range of 0 to (n-1).
• For n=2:

l = 0 - (n-1) l = 0 - (2-1) l = 0 - 1

• l=0 and l=1, meaning the n=2 level gives rise to 2 sub-levels, one with l=0 and one with l=1.
• Values of ml lie in the range -l ----0---+l; this means, when I=0, ml=-0----+0 = 0.
• When I=1, ml=-1--0--+1=-1, 0, +1.

Two possible sets of quantum numbers that describe an electron in a 2s atomic orbital

• A 2s electron is defined by n=2, l = 0, ml = 0.
• One of two sets can have electrons in a 2s atomic orbital.
• They are:

n=2, l = 0, ml = 0; ms = + 1/2 n=2, l = 0, ml = 0; ms = - 1/2

• If the orbital were fully occupied with two electrons, one electron would have ms = + 1/2, and the other electron would have ms = -1/2, i.e. the two electrons would be spin paired.

Defining periodic trends

• Periodicity refers to trends or recurring variations in element properties with increasing atomic number, caused by regular and predictable variations in element atomic structure.
• Dimitri Mendeleev organized elements according to recurring properties to make a periodic table of elements.
• Elements inside the same group (column) display similar characteristics.
• The rows in the periodic table (the periods) reflect the fulfillment of an element's electron shell.
• Elements are arranged with increasing value for electron shells around the nucleus, and so when a new row begins, the elements stack with others of similar properties.
• For example, helium and neon are both fairly unreactive gases that glow when an electric current passes through them.
• Lithium and sodium both have a +1 oxidation state and are reactive, shiny metals.

There are 'rules' which determine how electron shells are filled, and how many electrons they can contain:

• Inner shells begin filling first.

Inner shells begin filling first because:

• They are smaller.
• They can hold less electrons.

Limits for the elements up to Ca:

• A maximum of 2 electrons can occupy the first shell.
• A maximum of 8 electrons can occupy the second shell.
• A maximum of 18 electrons can occupy the third shell, however the fourth shell will begin to fill once the third shell contains 8 electrons.
• A maximum of 8 electrons can occupy the valence shell (outermost shell) of any atom, unless the valence shell is the only shell, in which case there can be a maximum of 2 electrons. This is also known as the 'octet rule'.

Periodicity

• Elements were first arranged by Dimitri Mendeleev, in order of increasing atomic weight who noticed recurring similar properties at regular intervals.
• The earliest periodic table was structured so that elements with similar properties were organized into vertical columns.
• In the modern form of the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number as a result of increasing chemical and physical properties are recurring periodically/logically.
• Atomic number determines electronic configuration.
• Electronic configuration, in turn determines atomic properties like (atomic radius, ionization enthalpy, electronegativity etc.)
• Atomic properties directly affect an element's type of bonding and structure.
• The periodic table is divided into 7 horizontal rows called periods.
• The horizontal periods are numbered top-down (period 1, period 2,......... period 7).
• Elements inside of a period shell have an equal number of occupied electron shells. The vertical columns, or groups, are numbered left to right (Group 1A, IIA,.......Group 0).
• Elements within a particular group have a similar number and arrangement of the outermost shell electron(s).
• The periodic table can also be divided into four blocks

Periodic table blocks

The periodic table can be divided into four blocks:

• s-block
• p-block
• d-block
• f-block

s-block elements

• Group IA and IIA elements form the s-block as their outermost shell electrons are located in the s-subshell.

p-block elements

• Elements of groups IIIA to 0 form p-block elements; this is because of how their outermost shell electrons are located in the p-subshell,.
• The s- and p- blocks are known collectively as the representative elements.

D-block elements

• D-block elements have their highest energy electrons in the inner d-subshell and are called transition elements.

F-block elements

• F-block elements have electrons filling the inner f-subshell and are called inner-transition elements.
• Has a lanthanide series {Z=58-71} and actinide series {Z= 90-103}.

Periodic trends

• Periodicity helped Mendeleev locate gaps in the periodic table that indicated undiscovered elements.
• These gaps helped scientists predict the characteristics of those elements based on their expected location on the periodic table.
• Ionization energy measures the amount of energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom or ion, increases moving left to right across the table and decreases moving down a group.
• Electronegativity scales how readily an atom forms a chemical bond that also increase moving left to right across a period and decrease moving down a group.
• Atomic radius, measured as half the distance between the middle of two touching atoms, decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a group.

Moving trends

• Moving L to R; Ionization Energy Increases, Electronegativity Increases, Atomic radius Decreases
• Moving Top to Bottom; Ionization Energy Decreases, Electronegativity Decreases, Atomic Radius Increases

Defining the building process of ground-state electron configurations

• Ground-state electronic configuration is the most probable or the most energetically favoured configuration; known as the Aufbau process.
• The Aufbau process consists of building up an advanced atom by starting with the simplest atom, hydrogen: the first element will proceed, with each step, to the next element, eventually adding one proton, that element's number for neutrons, and one electron.
• There is particular attention given to the added electron, known as the differentiating electron.
• Hydrogen, a Z of 1, has a lowest energy state for its electron in the 1s orbital, meaning it bears an electron configuration of 1s¹. Helium, a Z of 2, in its atom puts its second electron into the 1s orbital, giving it 1s².
• Lithium, a Z of 3, cannot accommodate its differentiating electron in the 1s orbital; the Pauli exclusion principle forces it to be placed in the next-lowest-energy orbital, 2s.
• Lithium's electron configuration is 1s²2s¹ and Beryllium, a Z of 4, gives the electronic configuration 1s22s¹.
• Atoms consist of electrons, located in defined regions called electron shells, surrounding the nucleus.
• The arrangement of these electrons is the electron configuration of the atom.

Metal occurrences

• Metals and their alloys are widely used in day-to-day life such as machines, railways, motor vehicles, bridges, buildings, agricultural tools, aircrafts, and ships.
• High usage equates to the production of a variety of metals in large quantities which is necessary for a country's economic growth.
• A few metals such as gold, silver, and mercury occur in free form while most other metals occur in the Earth's crust as compounds with oxides, sulphides, or halides.
• The study of recovering metals from their ores, or the metallugical process, is the method by which that recovery is made possible.
• Metals in nature occur in both free and combined form.
• Metals having low reactivity show little attraction for air, moisture, carbon dioxide, or present non-metals .
• These metals are called "noble metals" and show the least chemical reactivity.
• Gold, silver, mercury and platinum occur in free form.
• Active metals combine with air, moisture, carbon dioxide and, non-metals like oxygen, sulphur, or halogens and form compounds, like oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides or silicates.

Minerals versus Ores

• A mineral is a naturally occurring material in which a metal or its compound occurs.
• An ore is a mineral with a sufficiently high concentration that makes it a source from which the metal can be recovered economically.

Substances in nature and their effects on metals

• In nature, active substances are oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Found largely in ocean deposits; sulphur and silicon occur in the earth's crust.
• Sea-water contains chloride ions from dissolved sodium chloride.
• Important ores of metals occur as (i) oxides (ii) sulphides (iii) carbonates (iv) halides and (v) silicates. Sulphide ores undergo oxidation by air → sulphates that form the occurrence of sulphate ores.

Ore recovery (Mineral processing)

Ores invariable exist in a substance that contains rocky materials.

• These rocky waste materials are called the gangue or matrix. The process of ore metal recovery is defined as metallurgy

Step 1 and 2: Extraction of the metal and Pulverization/Concentration

The process is:

1. Crush ore into pieces via jaw-crushers and grinders which are easier to work.
2. Pulverize the crushed ore to a fine powder in a stamp mill.

Concentration or Dressing:

• Concentration removes materials such as sand, clay, or limestone that are now known.
• Several mechanisms may occur to concentrate ores.

Concentration or Dressing of the Ore, mechanism (i):

• The Gravity separation (Hydraulic washing) process removes light impurities from heavier metallic particles by washing with water via gravity.
• A powdered version of a specific ore agitated and washed by a strong current of water.
• Heavier Metallic ores rapidly form sediment in holes as sandy and earthy wastes run off. Gravity can commonly concentrate heavier oxide Ores like haematite (Fe2O3), tinstone (SnO2 ) and gold (Au).

Concentration or Dressing of the Ore, mechanism (ii):

• The Magnetic separation method is when those ores are concentrated that either have magnetic impurities or that are themselves magnetic.
• Non magnetic tin Ore, tin stone (SnO2) itself contains magnetic impurities such as iron tungstate (FeWO4) and manganese tungstate (MnWO4).
• A finely powdered ore is passed over a conveyer belt or a two roller system where one of which is fitted with an electromagnet.
• The magnetic material is attracted and collected/ separated from the nonmagnetic.

Concentration or Dressing of the Ore, mechanism (iii):

• The Froth floatation process is applied to sulphide ores, such as galena (PbS), or zinc blende, (ZnS), or copper pyrites (CuFeS2); based on the ore and contaminants wetting properties.
• The sulphide ore particles wet best with oil (rather than water) allowing for separation.
• The flotation process mixes oil & water to a powdered ore, resulting in the generation of a mixture of frothy oil and air.
• The process carries witted ore to the surface and isolates contaminants in the ater.

Concentration or Dressing of the Ore, mechanism (iv):

• The Chemical method treats the ore by dissolving it via chemical reaction.
• A suitable chemical reagent is used to dissolve (but also leave behind what remains by not dissolving) the insoluble impurities.
• Once separated, the ore can be recovered from the solution by a suitable chemical method.
• The chemical method is used for extraction of aluminium from bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O), iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), titanium (IV) oxide (TiO2) and silica (SiO2).
• To extract and isolate the mineral, the impurities are removed because they are digested via powdered Ore's mixing with aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 420 K under pressure.
• In this example, aluminium oxide dissolves in sodium hydroxide, whereas, iron (III) oxide, silica and titanium (IV) oxide remain. Al2O3 + 6NaOH→ 2Na3AlO3 + 3H2O

Calcination & Roasting of the Ore

• Calcination and roasting convert metal oxides for processing.
• In Calcination, heating in a limited supply of air is used, creating a temperature so that the metal does not melt.
• Calcination removes moisture, water of hydration and gaseous volatile substances.
• Removal of water of hydration (Al2O3.2H₂O →Al₂O₃+2H₂O)
• Expulsion of CO2 from carbonate (ZnCO₃ →ZnO + CO₂)

Roasting

• In the process of roasting, concentrated Ore is heated with high air flow (with the temperature below the melting point of the ore).

• Roasting implements several changes such as drying the mineral sample to increase the concentration of the ore by removing water

• There is removal of volatile impurities like arsenic, sulphur, phosphorus and organic matter. 4As + 3O₂ → 2As₂O₃(g) S + O₂ → SO₂(g) 4P + 5O₂ → P₄O₁₀(g) Conversion of the sulphide ores into oxides 2PbS + 3O₂ →2PbO + 2SO₂ 2ZnS + 3O₂ →2ZnO + 2SO₂

Reduction

• Carried out following completion of processing via calcination or roasting.

• This stage converts oxide ores into the metallic state

  Smelting is a process that implements carbon or other reducing agents in a molten environment to promote metal extraction.

• Using carbon as reducing agent to isolate iron, tin and zinc metals from their respective oxides

• The oxide ores are strongly heated with charcoal or coke and the reaction is driven by action of carbon and or carbon monoxide that is produced by the partial combustion of coke or charcoal. Fe₂O₃ + 3C→ 2Fe + 3CO Fe₂O₃ + CO→ 2FeO + CO₂ FeO + CO→ Fe + CO₂ SnO₂ + 2C →Sn + 2CO ZnO + C → Zn + CO Although the ore has been concentrated earlier, it is still contaminated with gangue material, which is is removed in the reduction process via addition of flux during smelting.

• Flux promotes cohesion, combining at higher temperatures with impurities, to form slag which has insoluble reaction in the molten metal.

  Basic Flux - On heating limestone becomes calcium oxide and acts as basic flux to with acidic impurities like silica. CaO + SiO₂ → CaSiO₃

  Acidic flux - SiO₂ is used as acidic flux to remove basic impurity of FeO in metallurgy of Cu.

• The slag, including calcium or silica compounds, floats over the molten metal and is easily removed.

SiO₂ FeO → FeSiO₃ and the slag floats over the metal and is easily removed

• The slag provides coverage of the metal, which prevents oxidation by air.

Other reducing agents

• Because some specific oxide ores cannot reduce via common metals, other materials must be used to promote the redox process.
• These ores react through formation of metal carbides, and are reduced by reducing agents like aluminium, sodium, magnesium or hydrogen.

Aluminum reduction

• Aluminium reduction of oxide like chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃) or manganese oxide (Mn₃O₄), is a highly exothermic reaction. This process is the Goldschmidt method (Aluminothermic Reduction).

Examples of some reactions for chromium and magnese

• Alumunium Reduction of Chromium- Cr₂O₃ + 2Al→2Cr + Al₂O₃ + Heat
• Alumunium Reduction of Mangnese-3Mn₃O₄ + 8Al→9Mn +4Al₂O₃ + Heat -- Titanium is obtained by the reduction of

Hydrocarbon/Inert treatment

• TiCl₄ (produced with Carbon, by
• Magnesium is able to produce reduction in the presence of an inert atmosphere of argon through:

TiCl₄ +2Mg Ti + 2MgCl₂

Titanium and Sodium

TiO₂ reduction by sodium is shown as: TiO₂ + 4Na→ Ti + 2Na₂O

Tungsten and Molybdenum

• Reduction of the oxides of Tungsten and molybdenum are reduced by Hydrogen:
• reduction of their oxides by Hydrogen MoO₃ + 3H₂ → Mo + 3H₂O

Self-reduction

• This is applied to the sulphide ores of copper, mercury and lead. The ores are heated in air, and a part of these ores are sulphides resulting in the metal and sulphur dioxide.

Copper reactions

• 2Cu₂S + 3O₂→ 2CuO₂ + 2SO₂ (Copper glance)
• 2Cu₂O + Cu₂S → 6Cu + SO₂ Copper produced at this stage is called blister copper due to evolved sulphur dioxide.

Mercury reactions

• 2HgS + 3O₂ → 2HgO + 2SO₂ (Cinnabar)
• 2HgO + HgS → 3Hg + SO₂

Lead actions

• 2PbS + 3O₂ → 2PbO + 2SO₂ (Galena)
• PbS + 2O₂ → PbSO₄
• PbS + 2PbO → 3Pb + SO₂ PbS + PbSO₄ → 2Pb + 2SO₂

Reduction Other Methods

• Used for some with reduced ability with elements like C, CH₂,H₂; therefore, it occurs with other methods of reduction

Reduction by precipitation:

Noble metals like silver and gold are extracted from their concentrated ores: The concentrated ores are extracted by dissolving metal ions in their soluble complexes

• The metal ions are then regenerated by: adding a suitable reagent that can be used to for example, concentrated argentite ore (Ag₂S) is treated with a dilute solution of sodium cyanide (NaCN) Ag₂S + NaCN → 2Na[(AgCN)₂ + Na₂S

1. adding Zn to precipitate silver

Electrolytic Reduction:

• Is how active metals like sodium, potassium and aluminium etc., are extracted when dissolved in a fused salt. The sodium case uses the Downs process, showing these reactions:

NaCl Na⁺ Cl- At the Cathode Na+ + e→Na (Reduction) (negative electrode) (metal)

At the Anode Cl→ Cl + e (Oxidation) (positive electrode)

Refining

• Except in electrolytic reduction method, most metals are impure.
• They may have other metals, unreduced oxide of the metal, non-metals like carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, flux or slag as components Crude metal refined by:
• Liquation: uses the fusibility of metals to refine those like tin or lead by pouring out the fusible sample across a hot area where that has a slop and collects as liquid while other contaminents are let behind
• Poling: Poling involves stirring the impure molten metal with green logs or bamboo- Hydrocarbons will reduce any metal oxide that is impurity
• Distillation: Volatile metals like zinc mercury are purified through distillation which removes non volatile metals
• Electromagnetic Refining: A large number of metals like copper, silver, electro chemical reactions that occur when exposed to acid. With that, the anode becomes thin while the cathode becomes thicker the mud like metals like silver, gold also deposit

Group One Elements (alkali metals)

Group one has: Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, and lastly, Francium with the atomic structures: lithium_1s22s1: sodium_1s22s22p63s1; and ect The elements have a lot chemical and physical properties alike. Although they are alike, do not occur in clusters because:the ions will have: lithium processing is used for rubidium only. Atomic structure of them can be divided into four which is by using Dimitry Mendeleev, he notice that:

Group One Elements occurance and extraction

This quiz covers the properties, reactions, and applications of Group 1 metals. It includes ionization energy trends, ionic bond formation, and reactions with dioxygen. It also covers industrial uses of Group 1 metals and their hydroxides.