Grammar: Signal Words, Cause & Effect

Grammar Signal Words

• These words connect ideas in sentences or phrases.
• Adding: and, also, as well as, moreover, too, furthermore, additionally
• Sequencing: first..second..third, next, meanwhile, after, then, subsequently
• Illustrating: for example, such as, for instance, in the case of, as revealed by, illustratedly
• Cause & effect: because, so, therefore, thus, consequently, hence
• Comparing: similarly, likewise, as with, like, equally, in the same way
• Qualifying: but, however, although, unless, except, apart from, as long as, if
• Emphasizing: above all, in particular, especially, significantly, indeed, notably

Cause and Effect

• Explains the causes or effects of something.
• Cause signal words: if, for, since, due to, because, owing to, because of, one cause, resulting from
• Effect signal words: so, thus, hence, then, therefore, as a result, in effect, as consequence, consequently, leads to, one of the effects, is, that is why

Problem Solution

• Identifies a problem and presents one or more solutions.

Claim and Counterclaim

• Presents a side of an issue in an argumentative manner.
• Claim: The writer's stand on a topic, supported by evidence and logical reasoning.
• Counterclaim: The opposite stand on an issue, disproven with evidence and logical reasoning.
• Signal words: however, nevertheless, on one hand, on the other hand, admittedly, some people say, some may say, of course, but not only that

Persuasion

• Aims to convince readers to do or believe in something.
• Expresses the writer's personal viewpoints to convince the readers.
• Persuasive signal words: come, free, need, must, must not, necessary, latest, hurry, join, help, best, better, great, proven, trusted, create, come along, urgent, amazing, experience, avail now, i believe, purge, don’t miss, can do it, and one of a kind.

Synthesizing

• Pulling together different ideas to create a new, bigger idea.
• Combines and blends ideas to form new understanding.
• IDEA 1 + IDEA 2 + OWN IDEAS = NEW IDEAS

REST Method:

• Read two different sources about a topic and write down key ideas.
• Edit notes by grouping similar ideas together.
• Synthesize notes with existing knowledge to form a clear understanding.
• Think about new ideas and connect them to what's already known.

Steps to Remember:

• Organize sources.
• Outline the structure.
• Write paragraphs with topic sentences.
• Revise, edit, and proofread.

Steps in Writing an Outline:

• Choose a topic and establish its purpose.
• List and organize major topics.
• List and organize subtopics.
• Provide additional information to support subtopics.
• Review and refine the outline's contents.

Thesis Statement

• A one-sentence statement expressing the main idea of an essay.

Major Topics

• Major phrases/sentences formed from the thesis statement.

Subtopics

• Minor phrases/sentences formed from the major topics.

Supporting Details

• Phrases/sentences providing additional information to clarify or prove points.

Primary Source

• Offers raw information or first-hand evidence compiled by research
• They can be diaries, letters, memoirs, personal journals, speeches, manuscripts, direct interviews, and other unpublished works.
• Published pieces, including newspaper or magazine articles, photographs, audio or video recordings, research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or theatrical works

Secondary Source

• Interprets or analyzes information from primary sources.
• Textbooks, edited works, books, and articles that interpret or review research works, histories, biographies, literary criticism and interpretation, reviews of law and legislation, political analyses, and commentaries

Ethos

• Originates from the Greek word for "habit," "custom," or "character."
• It influences the audience's opinion or mood.
• Knowledgeable, authoritative, and confident speakers are more likely to persuade an audience.

Pathos

• Translates to “suffering, experience, or sensation.”
• An author or speaker using pathos appeals to emotion to persuade the audience.
• Any and all emotions are valid: sadness, fear, hope, joy, anger, lust, pity.

Logos

• Translates to “word, reason, or discourse.”
• The appeal to reason relies on facts, data, and statistics to support an argument.

Allied Powers (WWII)

• Great Britain: Churchill, Roosevelt
• United States: Starlin, Chiang Kai-shek
• Soviet Union Republic of China

Axis Powers (WWII)

• Nazi Germany: Adolf Hitler
• Empire of Japan: Hirohito
• Kingdom of Italy: Benito Mussolini

Leaders of the Central Powers (WWI)

• Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany
• Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary
• Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire
• Tsar/Czar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria

Allied Leaders of WWI (Big Four)

• Woodrow Wilson (USA)
• David Lloyd George (Great Britain)
• Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (Italy)
• Georges Clemenceau (France)

Other Leaders

• Vladimir Putin (Russia)
• Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
• Vladimir Lenin (Soviet Russia)
• Leon Trotsky (Soviet Union)
• Nicholas II (Russia)

Digestive System

• Responsible for breaking down and absorbing nutrients from food and liquids.

Organs

• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine
• Large Intestine
• Rectum
• Anus

Other Organs

• Heart
• Blood Vessel
• Blood
• Kidney
• Urine
• Lungs
• Gasses
• Nutrients

Mouth

• Breaks down food mechanically.

Salivary Glands

• Moisten food.
• Contain mucin (softens food) and ptyalin (breaks down starch).

Stomach

• J-shaped organ turns food into a semi-liquid mixture.

Liver

• Produces bile, which helps break down fats.
• Emulsification: the process of breaking down fats.

Gallbladder

• Stores and releases bile into the small intestine.

Pancreas

• Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which helps digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

Small Intestine

• Main site for nutrient absorption.
• Intestinal wall contains villi (or villus).

Large Intestine

• Absorbs water and salt from remaining undigested food.

Rectum

• Stores feces until the body is ready to eliminate it.

Anus

• Opening at the end of the digestive tract.

Other Systems

• Circulatory System: Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, and delivers nutrients and gases to all parts of the body.
• Urinary System: Consists of the kidney containing nephrons that filters blood and remove toxins
• Respiratory System: Composed of lungs to take in oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide.

Cell Cycle

• Interphase
• Cell Division

Interphase

• First stage of the cell cycle; the cell performs normal functions and prepares for cell division.

Gap Phase 1 (G1)

• Cell growth begins.

Synthesis Phase (S)

• DNA replication occurs.

Gap Phase 2 (G2)

• Cell prepares for cell division; organelles duplicate.
• Checkpoint stage.

Cell Division (M Phase or Mitotic Phase)

• Second stage of the cell cycle.
• Remember!
• Some cells enter the quiescent (G0) phase or rest stage after cytokinesis.

Mitosis Phases

• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cytokinesis

Prophase

• DNA condenses and forms into an X shape called a chromosome.

Metaphase

• Chromosomes align in the center of the cell (metaphase plate).

Anaphase

• Sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase

• Spindle fibers start to disappear, and the cell starts to split into two.

Cytokinesis

• Complete separation of daughter cells, resulting in two new diploid daughter cells.

Key Terms

• Chromosome: Coiled DNA
• Chromatid: Single strand chromosome
• Chromatin: Uncoiled DNA
• Centrosome: Organelle made of two centrioles
• Centrioles: Paired barrel shaped
• Kinetochore: Protein in centromere
• Centromere: Two sister chromatids
• Spindle Fibers: Protein structure
• Diploid: Similar number of chromosome
• Haploid: Half number of chromosome

Meiosis

• Special type of cell division that occurs in reproductive cells or gametes (egg cells and sperm cells).
• Consists of meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis I Phases

• Prophase I
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
• Cytokinesis I

Prophase I

• Nuclear membrane starts to break down.

Metaphase I

• Spindle fibers connect to chromosome and homologous.

Anaphase I

• Chromosomes are pulled to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase I

• Chromosomes decondense.

Cytokinesis I

• Complete separation of haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II Phases

• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
• Cytokinesis II

Prophase II

• No DNA duplication occurs.

Metaphase II

• Spindle fibers attach to the chromatids.

Anaphase II

• Chromatids are pulled towards opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase II

• Single strand of chromosome decondenses.

Cytokinesis II

• Complete separation of daughter cells.
• Meiosis starts from a diploid parent cell, ending with two haploid daughter cells after meiosis I and four haploid daughter cells after meiosis II.

Genetic Disorders

• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including gametes.

Turner Syndrome

• Missing or incomplete X chromosome in females (monosomy X).
• Results in short stature, webbed neck, and heart problems.

Patau Syndrome

• Extra copy of chromosome 13 (trisomy 13).
• Results in cleft lip, heart defects, and seizures.

Down Syndrome

• Extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
• Results in intellectual disabilities and hearing loss.