Grade 11 STEM - General Biology 2 Module 5

Study Notes

Reproduction is the process by which new individuals of a species are produced and genetic material is passed from generation to generation.

Asexual Reproduction: Produces genetically identical offspring from one parent.
- Binary Fission (Splitting): Separation of the body into two new bodies, each receiving one copy of DNA.
- Budding: New individual develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent organism.
- Fragmentation: Parent organism breaks into fragments or pieces, each developing into a new individual.
- Sporulation: Unicellular spores detach from parent and develop into new individuals.
- Cloning: Mitotic division resulting in a development of a clone with exact genetic makeup.
- Parthenogenesis: Natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization by sperm.
Sexual Reproduction: Involves fusion of two nuclei to form a zygote and production of genetically dissimilar offspring.

Natural Vegetative Reproduction: Plant organs other than seed and spore serve as means of maintaining species.
- Examples: Bulbs, cloves, corms, tubers, and rhizomes.
Artificial Vegetative Reproduction: Methods used to produce new plants.
- Examples: Grafting, Cutting, and Layering or Runner.

Typical flower consists of:
- Pedicel/Stalk: Holds and supports the flower.
- Receptacle: Swollen end of pedicel where other structures are attached.
- Sepals: Small, green, leaf-like structures forming the calyx.
- Petals: Brightly colored to attract insects for pollination.
- Stamen: Male reproductive part consisting of an anther and filament.
- Carpel or Pistil: Female reproductive part consisting of ovary, style, and stigma.
Pollination: Transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.
Self-Pollination: Pollen grains transferred to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant.
Cross-Pollination: Pollen grains transferred to the stigma of different plants.

Stages of Animal Development:
- Gametogenesis: Production of sperm and eggs through meiosis.
- Fertilization: Formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg and sperm.
- Cleavage: Period of rapid cell division without growth.
- Gastrulation: Formation of three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
- Organogenesis: Development of rudimentary organs from germ layers.
- Differentiation and Growth: Development of tissues and organs.

Male Reproductive System:
- Testicles (testes): Produce testosterone and sperm.
- Epididymis: Transports and stores sperm cells.
- Vas Deferens: Muscular tube transporting mature sperm to the urethra.
- Ejaculatory Ducts: Formed by fusion of vas deferens and seminal vesicles.
- Seminal Vesicles: Produce sugar-rich fluid providing energy for sperm.
- Prostate Gland: Contributes fluid to ejaculate.
- Urethra: Carries urine from bladder to outside.
- Scrotum: Protects testicles and regulates temperature.
Female Reproductive System:
- Ovaries: Produce eggs and hormones.
- Fallopian Tubes: Narrow tubes connecting ovaries to uterus.
- Uterus (Womb): Hollow, pear-shaped organ supporting fetus development.
- Cervix: Lower part of uterus connecting to vagina.
- Vagina: Canal joining cervix to outside.
- Labia Majora and Minora: External structures protecting vagina and urethra.
- Clitoris: Sensitive protrusion comparable to penis in males.

Phases:
- Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5)
- Follicular Phase (Days 1-13)
- Ovulation Phase (Day 14)
- Luteal Phase (Days 15-28)

Methods:
- Ovulation-suppressing methods (Oral contraceptives)
- Barrier methods (Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap)
- Chemical methods (Spermicidal jelly and foam)
- Surgical methods (Vasectomy and Tubal ligation)
- Implantation-suppressing methods (IUD and Morning-after pill)
- Others (Abstinence)