Diabetes Mellitus -Pharmacotherapy 1 Exam 1
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of glucagon in glucose regulation?

  • To raise blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver (correct)
  • To stimulate glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
  • To inhibit glucose production in the liver
  • To stimulate glycogen synthesis in the liver

    • What is the normal range of blood glucose levels in the body?

  • 70-140 mg/dL (correct)
  • 100-200 mg/dL
  • 200-250 mg/dL
  • 50-100 mg/dL

    • What hormone promotes glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscles?

  • Cortisol
  • Growth hormone
  • Insulin (correct)
  • Glucagon

    • What is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources?

    <p>Gluconeogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of insulin in glucose regulation?

    <p>To lower blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of feedback mechanism is involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels?

    <p>Negative feedback loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of type 1 diabetes?

    <p>Autoimmune disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes?

    <p>Family history</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test?

    <p>To measure average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

    <p>Autoimmune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of lifestyle changes in diabetes management?

    <p>To reduce insulin resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic symptom of diabetes that is often overlooked?

    <p>Numbness or tingling in hands and feet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of oral medications in diabetes treatment?

    <p>To reduce blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of gestational diabetes?

    <p>Develops during pregnancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of Type 1 Diabetes?

    <p>Body doesn't produce insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common risk factor for Type 2 Diabetes?

    <p>Obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of Diabetes that may not be exhibited in the early stages?

    <p>No symptoms at all</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test?

    <p>To measure blood sugar levels after an overnight fast</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary complication of Diabetes that affects the kidneys?

    <p>Nephropathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Insulin therapy in Type 1 Diabetes?

    <p>To manage blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way to prevent Type 2 Diabetes?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Acute and Chronic complications of Diabetes?

    <p>Acute complications are short-term, while Chronic complications are long-term</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of Type 2 Diabetes?

    <p>A metabolic disorder where the body becomes resistant to insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of regular blood glucose testing in diabetes management?

    <p>To monitor blood sugar control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of diabetes?

    <p>Increased thirst and urination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of lifestyle changes in diabetes management?

    <p>To manage blood sugar levels and prevent complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary complication of diabetes that affects the eyes?

    <p>Retinopathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way to manage Gestational Diabetes?

    <p>Lifestyle changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for Type 1 Diabetes?

    <p>Genetic and environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of HbA1c tests?

    <p>To monitor blood sugar control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Type 1 Diabetes?

    <p>Autoimmune disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)?

    <p>Measuring blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary complication of Diabetes that affects the kidneys?

    <p>Nephropathy (kidney damage)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Lifestyle changes in Diabetes management?

    <p>Improving overall health and preventing complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for Type 2 Diabetes?

    <p>Obesity and physical inactivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test?

    <p>Measuring average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic criterion for identifying patients with diabetes?

    <p>All of the above in combination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of diagnosing diabetes?

    <p>To identify individuals at high risk of developing complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common diagnostic test for diabetes?

    <p>Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of diagnosing diabetes early?

    <p>Prevention of complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of diagnosing and managing diabetes?

    <p>To prevent complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of diagnosing diabetes?

    <p>To identify patients who meet criteria for diagnosis of diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic criterion for identifying patients with diabetes?

    <p>A fasting plasma glucose level ≥ 126 mg/dL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common diagnostic test for diabetes?

    <p>Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of diagnosing diabetes early?

    <p>Prevention of long-term complications of diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of diagnosing and managing diabetes?

    <p>To achieve optimal blood glucose control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of identifying patients with diabetes?

    <p>To prevent complications associated with diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a diagnostic criterion for diabetes?

    <p>Fasting blood glucose level above 126 mg/dL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of diagnosing and managing diabetes?

    <p>To manage blood glucose levels and prevent complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of diagnosing diabetes early?

    <p>It can prevent complications associated with diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common diagnostic test for diabetes?

    <p>Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the target HbA1c level for most adults with diabetes?

    <p>&lt; 7% (53 mmol/mol)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended blood pressure target for adults with diabetes and kidney disease?

    <p>&lt; 130/80 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key component of a balanced diet for diabetes management?

    <p>Emphasis on whole, unprocessed foods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a recommended weekly physical activity target for diabetes management?

    <p>At least 150 minutes/week</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of individualized diabetes management goals?

    <p>Personalized targets based on health status and other factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a recommended triglyceride target for diabetes management?

    <p>&lt; 150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of lifestyle recommendations for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Maintaining a healthy weight and increasing physical activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key component of lifestyle recommendations for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Healthy meal planning and portion control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of providing lifestyle recommendations to patients with diabetes?

    <p>Reducing the risk of complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a benefit of lifestyle changes in diabetes management?

    <p>Improving blood glucose control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of healthcare providers in providing lifestyle recommendations for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Educating patients on self-management techniques</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be the primary focus of lifestyle recommendations for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Achieving and maintaining a healthy weight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key component of a healthy diet for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Reducing carbohydrate intake to manage blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is physical activity important for patients with diabetes?

    <p>It improves insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary goal of self-monitoring blood glucose levels for patients with diabetes?

    <p>To identify patterns and trends in blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important for patients with diabetes to receive regular health check-ups?

    <p>To identify and manage diabetes-related complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of comprehensive treatment for patients with diabetes?

    <p>To manage blood glucose levels and prevent complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an essential component of comprehensive diabetes management?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is comprehensive treatment important for patients with diabetes?

    <p>To prevent complications and improve quality of life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of lifestyle changes in diabetes management?

    <p>Reducing body weight and improving cardiovascular health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) testing in diabetes management?

    <p>To assess average blood glucose levels over the past 2-3 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of comprehensive treatment for patients with diabetes?

    <p>To prevent complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key component of comprehensive treatment for patients with diabetes?

    <p>Lifestyle changes and medications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of regular blood glucose testing in diabetes management?

    <p>To monitor blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of insulin therapy in diabetes management?

    <p>To replace insulin in the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) testing in diabetes management?

    <p>To evaluate the effectiveness of treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the treatment of diabetes, what is the significance of natural products?

    <p>They are used to regulate blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Fewer side effects compared to synthetic medications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following natural products has been shown to have potential benefits in diabetes treatment?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Increasing insulin sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current evidence for the use of natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Moderate evidence for their effectiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of identifying natural products in the treatment of diabetes?

    <p>To develop alternative therapies for diabetes management</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of researchers studying natural products for diabetes treatment?

    <p>To develop novel therapeutic approaches for diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential advantage of using natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Reduced risk of side effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential challenge in using natural products for diabetes treatment?

    <p>Difficulty in standardizing natural products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential application of natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Developing combination therapies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of using natural products in the treatment of diabetes?

    <p>To improve insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a natural product used to treat diabetes?

    <p>Ginseng</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential benefit of using natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>Improving insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which natural products may help to treat diabetes?

    <p>By improving insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using natural products in diabetes treatment?

    <p>They have fewer side effects than traditional medications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Glucose Control Physiology

    Glucose Homeostasis

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by:
        • Increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
        • Inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by:
        • Stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
        • Inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Glucose Control Physiology

    Glucose Homeostasis

    • The body maintains blood glucose levels between 70-140 mg/dL through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
      • Inhibits glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
      • Inhibits glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
    • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
    • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
    • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
    • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: caused by genetics and autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes: caused by obesity, physical inactivity, family history, certain medications, age, and ethnicity
    • Obesity increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes
    • Physical inactivity is a significant risk factor for type 2 diabetes
    • Family history can contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes
    • Certain medications can increase the risk of type 2 diabetes
    • Age increases the risk of type 2 diabetes after 45
    • Ethnicity is a risk factor, with African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians at higher risk

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms of diabetes include increased thirst and hunger, frequent urination, fatigue, blurry vision, and cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms include numbness or tingling in hands and feet, recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections, and flu-like symptoms in type 1 diabetes

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes: healthy diet, regular physical activity, and weight loss (if overweight or obese) can help manage diabetes
    • Insulin therapy is necessary for type 1 diabetes and some type 2 cases
    • Oral medications such as metformin and sulfonylureas can be used to manage diabetes
    • Regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams are necessary for monitoring diabetes

    Definition and Types

    • Diabetes is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia)
    • There are two main types of diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) and Type 2 Diabetes (T2D)

    Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)

    • Autoimmune disease in which the body doesn't produce insulin, usually develops in childhood or adolescence
    • Characterized by genetic predisposition and environmental factors such as viral infections

    Type 2 Diabetes (T2D)

    • Body becomes resistant to insulin, and/or doesn't produce enough insulin, usually develops in adulthood
    • Risk factors: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (risk increases after 45), ethnicity, history of gestational diabetes or delivering a baby over 9 lbs

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms: increased thirst and urination, fatigue, blurred vision, slow healing of cuts and wounds, frequent infections
    • May not exhibit symptoms in early stages

    Complications

    • Acute complications: diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
    • Chronic complications: cardiovascular disease, nephropathy (kidney damage), retinopathy (eye damage), neuropathy (nerve damage), foot ulcers and amputations

    Diagnosis

    • Diagnostic tests: fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test

    Treatment and Management

    • T1D: insulin therapy (injections or pump), blood glucose monitoring, healthy diet and exercise
    • T2D: lifestyle changes (diet, exercise, weight loss), oral medications (e.g., metformin), insulin therapy (if necessary), blood glucose monitoring

    Prevention

    • Maintain a healthy weight to prevent developing Type 2 Diabetes
    • Engage in regular physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes
    • Eat a balanced diet to reduce the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes
    • Limit sugary drinks and saturated fats to reduce the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes
    • Manage stress to reduce the risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes
    • Get regular check-ups to prevent complications

    Definition and Types

    • Diabetes is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia)
    • Three main types of diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, and Gestational Diabetes

    Type 1 Diabetes

    • Autoimmune disease where the body doesn't produce enough insulin, a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels
    • Exact causes unknown, but genetic and environmental factors contribute to its development
    • Symptoms may develop rapidly, sometimes over a few weeks

    Type 2 Diabetes

    • Metabolic disorder where the body becomes resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels
    • Risk factors: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (45+ years), ethnicity, history of gestational diabetes
    • Symptoms may be mild or absent, and the condition may be diagnosed through routine blood tests

    Gestational Diabetes

    • Develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
    • Risk factors: obesity, family history, age (35+ years), history of gestational diabetes in previous pregnancies

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms: increased thirst and urination, fatigue, blurred vision, slow healing of cuts and wounds, frequent infections, tingling or numbness in hands and feet

    Complications

    • Untreated or poorly managed diabetes can lead to: microvascular complications (nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy) and macrovascular complications (cardiovascular disease, peripheral artery disease)

    Management and Treatment

    • Lifestyle changes: healthy diet, regular exercise, weight loss, stress management
    • Medications: insulin, oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Insulin therapy: for Type 1 diabetes and some Type 2 diabetes cases
    • Monitoring: regular blood glucose testing, HbA1c tests to monitor blood sugar control

    Definition and Types of Diabetes

    • Diabetes is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Two main types of diabetes:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease where the body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, where the body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: caused by genetic predisposition and environmental triggers such as viruses
    • Type 2 Diabetes: caused by obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (>45), and history of gestational diabetes

    Symptoms of Diabetes

    • Increased thirst and urination due to high blood sugar levels
    • Fatigue from inadequate insulin production or insulin resistance
    • Blurred vision caused by high blood sugar levels affecting the lens of the eye
    • Slow healing of cuts and wounds due to damaged blood vessels and nerves
    • Frequent infections due to weakened immune system
    • Tingling or numbness in hands and feet due to nerve damage

    Complications of Diabetes

    • Macrovascular complications: heart disease, stroke, peripheral artery disease
      • Heart disease: high blood sugar levels damage blood vessels and increase risk of heart disease
      • Stroke: high blood sugar levels increase risk of stroke
      • Peripheral artery disease: narrowed or blocked blood vessels in legs increase risk of foot ulcers
    • Microvascular complications: retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy
      • Retinopathy: high blood sugar levels damage blood vessels in the eye, leading to blindness
      • Nephropathy: high blood sugar levels damage kidneys, leading to kidney failure
      • Neuropathy: high blood sugar levels damage nerves, leading to pain, numbness, and tingling

    Diagnosis of Diabetes

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management of Diabetes

    • Lifestyle changes: healthy diet, regular exercise, weight loss to improve insulin sensitivity
    • Medications: oral medications (e.g., metformin) to improve insulin sensitivity, insulin therapy to replace insulin
    • Self-monitoring: regular blood glucose monitoring, tracking carbohydrate intake and physical activity to adjust treatment plan

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue and inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes

    • Definition: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetics
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue and inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes

    • Definition: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetics
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Diabetes Management Goals

    Glycemic Control

    • Target HbA1c level: < 7% (53 mmol/mol) for most adults
    • Fasting plasma glucose target: 80-130 mg/dL (4.4-7.2 mmol/L)
    • 2-hour postprandial glucose target: < 180 mg/dL (10 mmol/L)

    Blood Pressure Control

    • Target blood pressure: < 140/90 mmHg for most adults
    • Target blood pressure for those with kidney disease or higher cardiovascular risk: < 130/80 mmHg

    Lipid Control

    • Target LDL cholesterol level: < 100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L)
    • Target HDL cholesterol levels: > 40 mg/dL (1.0 mmol/L) for men, > 50 mg/dL (1.3 mmol/L) for women
    • Target triglycerides level: < 150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L)

    Lifestyle Management

    • Maintain a healthy weight: BMI 18.5-24.9
    • Engage in regular physical activity: at least 150 minutes/week
    • Eat a balanced diet: focus on whole, unprocessed foods
    • Manage stress: use relaxation techniques like meditation, deep breathing

    Individualized Goals

    • Set personalized targets with a healthcare provider based on age, health status, and other factors
    • Regularly monitor and adjust goals as needed

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue and inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes

    Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetics
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Glucose Homeostasis

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by:
        • Increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
        • Inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by:
        • Stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
        • Inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetic predisposition
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and hunger
      • Frequent urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin: produced by pancreatic beta cells, lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue, and inhibiting glucose production in the liver.
    • Glucagon: produced by pancreatic alpha cells, raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue.
    • Other hormones: cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation.

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis: glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles, and insulin promotes glycogen synthesis.
    • Glycogenolysis: glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver, and glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis.
    • Gluconeogenesis: glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys, and is stimulated by glucagon and cortisol.

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops: high blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels, and low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels.
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms: short-loop feedback occurs locally within the pancreas, and long-loop feedback involves the bloodstream and other organs.

    Diabetes

    • Definition: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels.
    • Types:
    • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.
    • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels.
    • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester.

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: genetics, autoimmune response.
    • Type 2 Diabetes: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (>45), history of gestational diabetes.

    Symptoms

    • Increased thirst and urination
    • Fatigue
    • Blurred vision
    • Slow healing of cuts and wounds
    • Frequent infections
    • Tingling or numbness in hands and feet

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG): measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast.
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink.
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c): measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months.

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes: healthy diet, regular exercise, weight loss.
    • Medications: oral medications (e.g., metformin), insulin therapy.
    • Self-monitoring: regular blood glucose monitoring, tracking carbohydrate intake and physical activity.

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • Blood glucose levels are maintained between 70-140 mg/dL through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue and inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes

    • Definition: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetics
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and hunger
      • Frequent urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin: produced by pancreatic beta cells, lowers blood glucose levels by:
      • Increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
      • Inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon: produced by pancreatic alpha cells, raises blood glucose levels by:
      • Stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
      • Inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones: cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation.

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis: glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles, promoted by insulin
    • Glycogenolysis: glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver, stimulated by glucagon
    • Gluconeogenesis: glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys, also stimulated by glucagon and cortisol.

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops: high blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels; low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms: short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas; long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs.

    Diabetes

    • A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body becomes less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: genetics, autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (>45), certain medications, ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
      • Frequent infections
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes: healthy diet, regular physical activity, weight loss
    • Medications: insulin therapy, oral medications (e.g., metformin)
    • Monitoring: regular blood glucose checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Note: The above notes have been condensed and reorganized for easier study and review.

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue and inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes:
      • Genetics
      • Autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes:
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Family history
      • Certain medications
      • Age (risk increases after 45)
      • Ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and urination
      • Frequent urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by:
        • Increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
        • Inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by:
        • Stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
        • Inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Diabetes Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: genetics, autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (risk increases after 45), ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Diabetes Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and hunger
      • Frequent urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diabetes Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Diabetes Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

    Glucose Control Physiology

    • The body maintains a narrow range of blood glucose levels (70-140 mg/dL) through a complex regulatory system involving the pancreas, liver, and other organs.

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Insulin:
      • Produced by pancreatic beta cells
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by:
        • Increasing glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
        • Inhibiting glucose production in the liver
    • Glucagon:
      • Produced by pancreatic alpha cells
      • Raises blood glucose levels by:
        • Stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver
        • Inhibiting glucose uptake in muscles and adipose tissue
    • Other hormones:
      • Cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone also play roles in glucose regulation

    Glucose Uptake and Storage

    • Glycogen synthesis:
      • Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles
      • Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis
    • Glycogenolysis:
      • Glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver
      • Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis
    • Gluconeogenesis:
      • Glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver and kidneys
      • Stimulated by glucagon and cortisol

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback loops:
      • High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin release, which reduces glucose levels
      • Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon release, which increases glucose levels
    • Short-loop and long-loop feedback mechanisms:
      • Short-loop: local feedback within the pancreas
      • Long-loop: feedback via the bloodstream and other organs

    Diabetes Definition and Types

    • Diabetes: a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels
    • Types:
      • Type 1 Diabetes: autoimmune disease, body attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
      • Type 2 Diabetes: insulin resistance, body's cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar
      • Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester
      • LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): autoimmune form of type 2 diabetes
      • MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): rare, genetic form of diabetes

    Diabetes Causes and Risk Factors

    • Type 1 Diabetes: genetics, autoimmune response
    • Type 2 Diabetes: obesity, physical inactivity, family history, age (risk increases after 45), ethnicity (African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and Asians are at higher risk)

    Diabetes Symptoms

    • Common symptoms:
      • Increased thirst and hunger
      • Frequent urination
      • Fatigue
      • Blurry vision
      • Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
    • Less common symptoms:
      • Numbness or tingling in hands and feet
      • Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
      • Flu-like symptoms (in type 1 diabetes)

    Diabetes Diagnosis

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test: measures blood sugar levels after an overnight fast
    • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): measures blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink
    • Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months

    Diabetes Treatment and Management

    • Lifestyle changes:
      • Healthy diet
      • Regular physical activity
      • Weight loss (if overweight or obese)
    • Medications:
      • Insulin therapy (type 1 diabetes, some type 2 cases)
      • Oral medications (metformin, sulfonylureas, etc.)
    • Monitoring: regular blood sugar checks, HbA1c tests, and foot exams

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    Learn about the physiology of glucose control, including glucose homeostasis, hormonal regulation, and the roles of insulin and glucagon in maintaining blood glucose levels.

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