Global Ethics: Female Genital Mutilation

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Questions and Answers

What is the main criticism of the term 'female circumcision'?

It is a misleading term because it compares it to male circumcision, despite the fact that female genital cutting is much more invasive.

What was the opposition to female genital cutting in the 1960s?

The Feminist movement opposed it.

How many countries have documented female genital cutting practices?

30 countries, mainly in Africa.

What percentage of female genital cutting cases involve the most severe form of the procedure?

About 10%. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument against medicalizing female genital cutting?

It denies that FGM is gender-based violence and a violation of human rights, regardless of the degree of harm caused. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of female genital cutting, according to Ruth Macklin?

To control women. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument made by FGM survivors against the idea of medicalizing female genital cutting?

It still causes psychological damage to victims and is a form of child abuse and human rights violation. Signup and view all the answers

Why is female genital cutting considered a global ethics issue?

Because it is a violation of human rights, and its justification is rooted in cultural and gender-based violence. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main criticisms of cultural relativism, according to the argument from values underlying practice?

Cultural relativism exaggerates differences between cultures and confuses underlying values with application in practice. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the example of eating fathers and burning bodies in the context of cultural relativism?

It illustrates that both actions were motivated by respect for the deceased person, demonstrating a shared moral value. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of the argument from moral experience?

People think that what they are expressing is something actually true, implying a shared standard of morality. Signup and view all the answers

What is the problem with cultural relativism in relation to moral change or evolution?

It is difficult to judge whether changes are progress or not, as there is no standard to evaluate them by. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the global debate and interrelatedness of cultures in the context of cultural relativism?

It suggests that there are shared values and moral communication is possible across cultures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of cultural relativism on the evaluation of moral practices from different times?

It would consider it a mistake to judge past practices by the standards of different times. Signup and view all the answers

What is the issue with cultural relativism in relation to moral progress?

It is difficult to determine whether changes are progress or not, as there is no objective standard to evaluate them by. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the example of human rights and female genital mutilation in the context of cultural relativism?

They illustrate the possibility of shared values and moral communication across cultures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle of consequentialism?

The view that normative properties depend only on consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of ethical egoism?

Consequences just for the individual. Signup and view all the answers

What is the core principle of utilitarianism?

The correct social and moral goal is to make as many people as possible as happy as possible. Signup and view all the answers

Who are the fathers of utilitarianism?

Bentham and Stuart Mill. Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of impartiality?

Everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one. Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of cost-benefit analysis in consequentialism?

To choose the best choice in terms of expected utility. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between utilitarianism and other forms of consequentialism?

Utilitarianism considers consequences for everyone, not just the individual or group. Signup and view all the answers

What is the central question in determining happiness according to utilitarianism?

What is happiness? Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between justice and virtue according to Aristotle?

Justice is a virtue in the most complete sense, and it is complete because it can be used towards others and not just for oneself. Signup and view all the answers

How does Aristotle define virtue?

A state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, and acting 'at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way'. Signup and view all the answers

What is the advantage of virtue theory in terms of moral decision-making?

It is context-sensitive, allowing for moral decisions to be made based on the specific situation and circumstances. Signup and view all the answers

How does Aristotle resolve the conflict between partiality and impartiality in moral decision-making?

By recognizing that partiality towards friends and family is compatible with impartiality towards others, and that the issue of when to be partial depends on the specific situation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the limitation of virtue theory in terms of its global applicability?

Virtues vary with cultures, making it difficult to apply virtue theory globally. Signup and view all the answers

What is the challenge of negotiating conflicts of virtues in moral decision-making?

It is difficult to negotiate conflicts of virtues, as seen in the case of the inquiring murderer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between virtue and character in Aristotle's philosophy?

Virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, and it is a disposition to find the right mean in moral decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

How does Aristotle's concept of virtue address the tension between particularity and universality in moral decision-making?

It allows for a compatible universalist concern, combining intimate caring for particular others with humanitarian caring about others. Signup and view all the answers

What does the right to bodily integrity mean under the liberty perspective?

It means you have the privilege to control your body and are the master of it, and others should not use, hurt it or force you to use it in a certain way. Signup and view all the answers

What is the right to bodily integrity under the claim perspective?

It is a claim against bodily intrusion, non-consensual assault or invasion, and the right is held against all other persons and the state, which have the duty not to invade one's body. Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of the power to renounce or transfer one's claim to bodily integrity?

It allows individuals to grant consent for certain procedures, such as surgical operations, and is essential for self-determination and autonomy. Signup and view all the answers

What is the debate surrounding the recognition of exceptions to the prohibition of FGM when an adult gives informed consent?

Governments may wish to recognize exceptions to the prohibition, but the Cairo declaration (2003) argues that consent is irrelevant and all performance of FGM should be illegal. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Cairo declaration (2003) in relation to FGM?

The declaration takes the position that all performance of FGM should be illegal and that consent is irrelevant, especially according to article 13. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the right to bodily integrity and the concept of immunity?

Immunity is a protection against others altering one's claim to bodily integrity, ensuring that individuals have control over their bodies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the analysis of critics of values underpinning human rights in the context of FGM?

It helps to understand the ethical framework and values that underpin human rights, particularly in relation to the practice of FGM. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relevance of the concept of self-determination in the context of the right to bodily integrity?

It is the ability to make choices about one's own body and life, free from external interference or coercion. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of global ethics?

Addressing real-world issues and problems arising from global interconnection Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of an ethical dilemma?

Confronting two alternatives that can both lead to suboptimal outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the ticking bomb scenario in global ethics?

It exemplifies an ethical dilemma with severe consequences Signup and view all the answers

Why is discussing global ethics important?

Because it helps us develop a framework for the future of global governance Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between global ethics and restorative justice?

This module is strictly related to restorative justice Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of global ethics issues?

They take the form of ethical dilemmas Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of exercising the ability to think and discuss in building a democratic society?

It is a necessary condition for democratic society Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of global ethics?

Addressing real-world issues and problems arising from global interconnection Signup and view all the answers

Which theory of ethics holds that certain things are good or bad for people regardless of whether they want to have or avoid them?

Objective theory Signup and view all the answers

What is a criticism of the objective theory of ethics?

It is too simplistic Signup and view all the answers

What is an advantage of utilitarianism?

It is impartial Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of utilitarianism?

It fails to protect individuals Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of consequentialism?

To maximize happiness Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of impartiality in utilitarianism?

All human beings are morally important Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Maslow's hierarchy in the context of objective theory?

It provides an objective list of goods Signup and view all the answers

What is the central concern of utilitarianism?

The maximization of happiness Signup and view all the answers

What are human rights (HRs) primarily intended to protect people from?

Severe political, legal and social abuses Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the concept of universality in human rights?

All living humans have HRs, regardless of their background Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of human rights that implies they address a variety of specific problems?

Plurality Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between human rights and race laws?

HRs are universal, while race laws are discriminatory Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the definition of human rights at this level?

Understanding the general concept of HRs Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the concept of 'rights held by individuals simply because they are part of the human species'?

HRs are inherent to being human Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of exploring the concept of human rights in the context of FGM?

To understand the moral implications of FGM Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of exploring the nature of human rights in GE theories and in practical tasks?

To build a more just world Signup and view all the answers

What is the main drawback of utilitarianism in the context of FGM?

It supports FGM if the benefits to society outnumber the utility to individual Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of deontology?

The moral norm or duty Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between consequentialism and deontology?

Consequentialism focuses on the consequences of an action, while deontology focuses on the moral norm or duty Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the theory that holds that some choices cannot be justified by their effects?

Deontology Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of cost-benefit analysis in consequentialism?

To maximize aggregate welfare Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of utilitarianism in the context of FGM?

It supports FGM if the benefits to society outnumber the utility to individual Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Batman's decision not to kill the Joker in the context of moral theories?

It represents a Kantian approach to moral decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of our moral toolbox?

Moral theories, political theories, and rights-based theories Signup and view all the answers

According to John Locke, what is the sole justification for the creation of governments?

Protection of individuals' natural rights Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the four basic components of rights, including liberty, claim, power, and immunity?

Hohfeldian framework Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the 'secondary rules' in the Hohfeldian framework?

To specify how agents can introduce and change primary rules Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'privilege' or 'liberty' in the Hohfeldian framework?

A has no duty not to do X Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the US Declaration of Independence in relation to John Locke's ideas?

It adopted Locke's ideas on natural rights Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the French Revolution and John Locke's ideas?

The French Revolution was inspired by Locke's ideas on natural rights Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the concept of 'power' in the Hohfeldian framework?

It specifies how agents can introduce and change primary rules Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the concept of 'immunity' and the concept of 'claim' in the Hohfeldian framework?

Immunity is a separate concept from claim Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

FGM is a misleading term as it compares it to male circumcision, despite being more invasive for females.
In the 1960s, the Feminist movement opposed the practice of FGM.
FGM is also known as Female Genital Cutting.
It has been documented in 30 countries, mainly in Africa.
The type of procedure varies with ethnicity and tradition.
About 10% of over ten million women have undergone Type 3 FGM.
FGM has no health benefits and causes harm to women in many ways, including immediate complications and long-term consequences.

Ethical Debates around FGM

Some argue that FGM is a cultural practice that should be respected, but others argue that it is a form of gender-based violence and a violation of human rights.
The purpose of FGM is to control women, which is why it is still being carried out.
Performing FGM under medical conditions would deny that it is a form of gender-based violence.
FGM is not only a medical issue but also an ethical one.

Global Ethics

Cultural relativism can be criticized for exaggerating differences between cultures and confusing underlying values with application in practice.
Moral experience is not just a matter of opinions, but involves shared moral values.
Moral change or evolution is often progress, but by what standard do we judge new ways as better?
Different cultures may have different moral codes, but there are shared values, such as human rights.

Consequentialism

Consequentialism is the view that normative properties depend only on consequences.
Whether an act is morally right depends only on the consequences of that act.
There are three types of consequentialism: ethical egoism, group consequentialism, and utilitarianism.

Virtue Theory

Virtue theory is a context-sensitive approach that stresses the complexity of moral life.
It permits appropriate partiality and allows for intimate caring for particular others, while also being concerned with universal humanitarian caring.
Advantages of virtue theory include its context sensitivity and ability to combine intimate caring with universal concern.
Disadvantages include difficulty in applying it globally and negotiating conflicts of virtues.

Rights Perspective

Under a liberty perspective, the right to bodily integrity means having control over one's body and being free from non-consensual assault or invasion.
Under a claim perspective, the right to bodily integrity is a claim against bodily intrusion and a claim to bodily authority and self-determination.
Secondary rules include power and immunity, which allow individuals to renounce or transfer their claims.

FGM and Human Rights

The Cairo declaration for the elimination of FGM (2003) states that all performance of FGM should be illegal and that consent is irrelevant.
Governments may wish to recognize exceptions to a prohibition on FGM when an adult undergoes the procedure with informed consent.
FGM is considered a practice that infringes human rights, particularly in the case of Tanzania.

Global Ethics

Global ethics is a field of theoretical enquiry that addresses ethical questions and problems arising out of the global interconnection and interdependence of the world.
It involves discussing and seeking solutions to real-world issues, not abstract or metaphysical issues.
Ethical claims don't arise in a vacuum, they are always articulated in a political context.
Global ethics issues often take the form of ethical dilemmas, where two alternatives can lead to suboptimal outcomes.

Ethical Dilemmas

An example of an ethical dilemma is the "ticking bomb scenario", where one must decide whether to torture someone to obtain information that could prevent a large number of deaths.
The logical structure of this dilemma is: either torture the person, which may lead to severe harm but could prevent a large number of deaths, or not torture the person, which would lead to a large number of deaths.

Objective Theory

According to the objective theory, certain things are good or bad for people regardless of whether they want to have or avoid them.
These goods are essential for human flourishing and self-realization.
This theory is supported by the anthropologist Maslow, who organized a hierarchy of human needs, from basic needs like food and shelter to more complex needs like security and confidence.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that captures important ethical insights, particularly the idea that the consequences of our actions are crucial in determining what is the right thing to do.
Advantages of utilitarianism include impartiality and the maximization of happiness.
Disadvantages of utilitarianism include the potential for the ends to justify the means, and the failure to protect individual rights.
A example of a weakness of utilitarianism is the "FGM case", where the benefits of the practice to society may outweigh the harm to individuals, leading utilitarianism to support the practice.

The Ethical Toolbox

The ethical toolbox consists of three main tools: moral theories, political theories, and rights-based theories.
Moral theories include consequentialism, deontology, and virtue theory.
Political theories include cosmopolitanism, nationalism, and political realism.
Rights-based theories include global human rights and critiques of the rights framework.

Deontology

Deontology is an ethical theory that holds that some choices cannot be justified by their effects, but rather by their conformity with a moral norm.
What matters is the respect for the duty, rather than the consequences of the action.
An example of a deontological theory is the Kantian theory, which is illustrated by the example of Batman's refusal to kill the Joker, even if it would prevent him from killing others.

Human Rights

Human rights are norms that help to protect all people everywhere from severe political, legal, and social abuses.
They are defined by four key characteristics: they are rights held by individuals simply because they are part of the human species, they are plural, they are universal, and they are norms.
Human rights can be further broken down into the Hohfeldian elements of liberty, claim, power, and immunity.
The history of human rights shows that there are different kinds of rights, and that they have a complex internal structure.

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Description

This quiz covers the concept of female genital mutilation, its comparisons to male circumcision, and the opposition from the Feminist movement in the 1960s.