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Levels of Biological Organization

• Biological organization involves a hierarchical arrangement of living things by component size
• The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems, including land, water, and atmosphere
• A biome is a large geographic area with similar biotic communities, climate, soil, plants, etc.
• An ecosystem is a system containing abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components interacting in an area
• A community is a group of different species that interact in the same area
• A population is a group of individuals of the same species living and interacting in a specific area
• A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
• An organism is a single living entity able to function independently
• An organ is a structure of multiple tissues performing a function (e.g., heart, liver)
• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to perform a function (e.g., muscle tissue)
• A cell is the basic unit of life, carrying out life functions
• An organelle is a specialized structure within a cell (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes)
• A molecule is a group of bonded atoms (e.g., DNA, proteins, lipids)
• An atom is the smallest unit of matter with protons, neutrons, and electrons

Characteristics Shared by Living Things

• Living things possess organization from molecules to cells to tissues
• Metabolism refers to the chemical processes for sustaining life
• Homeostasis is maintaining a stable internal environment
• Growth and development occurs following genetic instructions
• Reproduction allows for producing offspring sexually or asexually
• Organisms respond to environmental changes like light and temperature
• Adaptation occurs through evolution to improve survival

Abiotic and Biotic Components of Ecosystems

• Abiotic components include non-living factors that influence ecosystems
• Water is vital for life, climate, and weather patterns
• Temperature impacts metabolic rates and organism survival
• Soil provides nutrients for plants and affects plant growth
• Sunlight fuels photosynthesis
• Air provides oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
• Biotic components are the living organisms within an ecosystem
• Producers like plants, algae, and some bacteria synthesize food through photosynthesis
• Consumers are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores that eat other organisms
• Decomposers like fungi and bacteria break down dead organic matter

Main Components of the Cell Theorum

• All living things consist of one or more cells
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cells are simple without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria, archaea)
• The DNA is free in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells
• Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller than eukaryotic cells
• Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, plasma membrane, and ribosomes
• Eukaryotic cells are complex, with a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., plants, animals, fungi)
• DNA is enclosed in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells are typically larger than prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells have specialized organelles (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts)

Multicellular, Unicellular, and Colonial Organisms

• Unicellular organisms consist of a single cell, e.g., bacteria, yeast
• Multicellular organisms feature multiple cells performing various functions, e.g., humans, trees
• Colonial organisms are genetically identical cells living together, performing independent functions and benefiting from cooperation, e.g., Volvox (a type of algae)

Structure and Function of Cellular Structures

• Cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cell which controls the movement of substances
• Cell wall is the rigid outer layer in plants, fungi, and bacteria that provides structure and protection
• Cytoplasm is the gel-like substance where cellular processes occur
• Nucleus contains genetic material i.e. DNA
• DNA is genetic material, guiding cell activities
• Rough ER has ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis and modification
• Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification
• Ribosomes are small structures where protein synthesis occurs
• Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids
• Lysosomes contain enzymes to break down cellular waste
• Central vacuole found in plant cells stores materials, disposes waste, and maintains rigidity
• Mitochondria are responsible for energy production (ATP) through cellular respiration
• Chloroplasts, found in plant cells, are responsible for photosynthesis

Define Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

• Cellular respiration converts glucose and oxygen into ATP (energy), carbon dioxide, and water, occurring in mitochondria
• Photosynthesis synthesizes glucose from carbon dioxide and water by plants and bacteria with sunlight, releasing oxygen, and occurs in chloroplasts

Compare and Contrast Animal Cells and Plant Cells

• Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole
• Animal cells lack a cell wall and chloroplasts, have smaller vacuoles, and contain centrioles
• Both cell types have a nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and Golgi apparatus

Hypothesis, Theory, Testability, and Falsifiability

• A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement about the relationship between variables, based on existing knowledge
• A hypothesis is specific and tested, either supported or refuted
• A theory is a broad explanation of the natural world based on evidence
• A theory explains multiple observations and hypotheses
• A testable hypothesis can be evaluated through experimentation or observation
• A falsifiable hypothesis can be proven false

Steps in the Scientific Method

• Begin with observation to identify a question or problem
• Research the topic to understand previous findings
• Formulate a hypothesis based on observations and research
• Conduct controlled experiments or gather data to test the hypothesis
• Analyze the results using statistical methods to determine support
• Draw conclusions, refine the hypothesis, or explore alternative explanations
• Share findings with the scientific community

Components of Experimental Design

• The independent variable is manipulated in an experiment of cause and effect
• The dependent variable is measured in response to the independent variable
• The null hypothesis states there is no effect/relationship between variables
• The alternate hypothesis proposes a significant effect/relationship between variables
• A controlled experiment keeps all variables constant except for the independent variable to isolate its effect on the dependent variable
• The treatment group receives the experimental treatment
• The control group does not receive the treatment and serves as a baseline
• Randomly selecting subjects reduces bias, and standardizing variables controls external factors
• Replication ensures reliable results
• Statistical analysis tests the significance results and relationships between variables

Definitions of Evolution, Natural Selection, and Adaptation

• Evolution involves the change in populations of organisms over time through variations in traits, inheritance, and selection pressures
• Natural selection picks organisms with more suitable traits for their environment with higher survival and reproduction rates, passing the traits to the next generation
• Adaptation is a trait or behavior that betters an organism's chances of survival and reproduction in an environment

Main Steps in Natural Selection

• Variation: Individuals vary in traits
• Inheritance: Some variations pass to offspring
• Differential Survival and Reproduction: Some traits allow better survival
• Change in Population: Favorable traits will become common through reproduction

Three Conditions for Natural Selection to Cause Evolutionary Change

• There must be variation in traits within a population
• Traits must be heritable from parents to offspring
• Individuals must have a better chance of reproduction and survival

Summary of Study

• Hypotheses are testable predictions, while theories are broader
• The scientific method consists of observation, hypothesizing, analyzing, and experimenting
• Experimental design includes manipulating variable and establishing control groups
• Evolution, adaptation, and natural selection describe changing processes in population

Taxonomy and Uses of Classification Systems

• Taxonomy is classifying organisms into hierarchical categories based on shared characteristics
• Practical uses include organizing biodiversity, identifying organisms, understanding evolutionary relationships, guiding practices, and protecting endangered species

Carolus Linnaeus's Taxonomic System

• He developed a hierarchical classification with nested levels of Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
• The Binomial System of Nomenclature assigns species a two-part Latin name of a capitalized genus and a lowercase species

Biological Species

• It is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, being reproductively isolated from other groups

Phylogeny and Systematics

• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history mapped as a phylogenetic tree
• Systematics joins taxonomy and phylogeny to study organism diversity and evolution

Darwin's Influence on Biological Classification

• Darwin's evolution theory showed species evolve, making taxonomy tied to phylogeny

Phylogenetic Tree

• A branching diagram shows species relationships with common ancestors
• The Tree helps explain divergence and traits

Natural vs. Artificial Classification Systems

• Natural classification uses phylogeny to reflect ancestry
• Artificial classification groups organisms with appearances and does not accurately represent all evolution

Clade

• A common ancestor and all descendants form a clade
• A clade represents a single evolutionary tree branch

Limitations of the Current Biological Classification System

• The System can face issues of convergent evolution(unrelated species share similar traits), and it doesn't include genetic and morphological data

Three-Domain System of Classification

• Carl Woese proposed: Archaea(organisms that can live in extreme environments and are different from bacteria), Bacteria( organisms that live in a variety of environments), and Eukarya(complex organism including fungi, animals, and plants)

Chronological Sequence of Major Events in Evolutionary History

• Formation of earth approximately 4.5 billions years ago
• The first organisms were prokaryotic about 3.5 billion years ago
• Photosynthesis and oxygen production began 2.7 billion years ago
• Eukaryotic cells emerged about 2.1 billion years ago
• Multicell life emerged about 1.2 billion years ago
• First animals appeared about 600 mya
• Cambrian Explosion about 540 mya
• Plants began to appear on land about 475 million years ago
• Vertebrates invaded land about 360 mya
• Dinosaurs began about 230 mya
• Large extinction about 65 million years ago
• Evolution of birds and mammals 65 million years ago
• Evoloutino of humans 2.5 million years ago

Environmental (Abiotic) Conditions for All Living Systems

• Organisms need specific abiotic conditions for homeostasis
• Temperature affect function or may damage cell structure if too low or high
• Water provides metabolism and maintains cell state
• For aerobic organisms, Oxygen provides respiration
• pH and its varying degrees may affect cell stability
• Photosynthetic beings need light as a main source
• Minerals such as carbon are important for growing molecules

Four Major Nutritional Modes in Living Things

• Autotrophs produce food from materials i.e plants and cyanobacteria
• Heterotrophs eat compounds for energy i.e. animals, fungi, bacteria
• Photoautotrophs synthesize light for compounds i.e. algae and plants
• Chemoautotrophs obtain chemicals in the ocean i.e. sulfur or ammonia

Success of Prokaryotes: Distribution and Abundance

• Adaptability allows them to perform in any climate needed
• Speedy reproduction allows them to reproduce fast
• Genetic diversity allows adaption to new environments
• Small size lets them be efficient

Comparison of Domain Bacteria and Archaea

• Bacteria has peptidoglycan in their cell walls
• Bacteria are not well suited for most climate
• Archaea lack peptidoglycan in their cell
• Archea live well in extreme climates
• Genes make arca similar to eukaryotes

Roles of Prokaryotes in the Biosphere

• Decomposers break down compounds for use in the ecosystem
• Pathogens are harmful like e.coli and streptococcus
• Mutualistic bacteria help the gut produce Vitamins
• Biotechnology gives way to food and dairy production
• Bioremediation breaks down trash

Endosymbiotic Theory for Eukaryotic Evolution

• It tells of a symbiotic relationship between a eukaryote and a prokaryote that created mitochondria and chloroplasts

Characteristics of Protists and Reclassification

• Eukaryotic and multi celled or single celled that like places such as animals, fungi, and humans
• Wet Enviros and can be auto, hetero, or mixtrotophic
• Consists of multi new kingdoms like excavata and chromalveolata

Key Characteristics and Ecological Roles of Protists

• Animal like Proto don't have chloroplasts and take the form of ameobas and paramecium
• Predation of bacteria
• Plant like use energy from light from euglena and help produce aquatic ecosystems
• Fungi digest nutrients from Slime molds as decomposers

Distinguishing Characteristics of Fungi

• Are non-photosynethitic
• Have cells made of chitin versus cellulose
• Can be multi or unicell and reproduce sex or asexually with spores

Roles of Fungi

• Recycle nutrients by decomposing material
• Forms mutualist relationships with plant life to get nutrients
• Pathogens produce athlete's foot
• Biotechnology uses fungi to make beer and cheese or medication

Definition of Plants and Distinction from Multicellular Protists

• Plants are multi, eukaryotic organisms that make food and have celluloid walls
• Distinciton comes from protists that don't have proper plants and have algin walls
• Plants adept to land

Basic Resources Required by Plants

• H20 to provide turgor and photosynthesis and transport
• Carbon to photosynthesize
• Use minerals to absorb DNA
• Sunlight helps photosynthesis
• Oxygyn provide cell respiration

Comparison of Water and Land as Habitats for Plants

• Lots of H20 and minerals of H20
• C02 absorptions happen but are low in quantity
• Ozyhgen gets limited aside from coasts
• High Sunlight
• Oxgyen good

Evolutionary History of Plants

• Begun with Pro ancestral lines of Green Algae
• Plants adapted as a vascular system
• Seeds adopted
• Flowers help pollination

Vascular vs Non-Vascular Plants

• Vascular have vascular organs like angiosperm
• Non has non vascular plants and small like liverworts

Key Adaptations to Life on Land

• Mosses has water cells and stay tiny in damp climates
• Seaweed gets water from vascular like leaves
• Gymnosperms adapt seeds

Major Limitations in the Terrestrial Environment for Each Major Plant Group

• Mosses need water
• Seaweed is the same as mosses
• Gymnosperms are limited a bit
• Angiosperm do their thing

Comparison of Monocots and Eudicots

• Monocots(cotyledon/parallel leaves in groups of 3/ orchids)
• Eudicots(multiple cotyledons and netted veins in groups of 4/5)

Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cell Walls in Vascular Plants

• Made in cellwalls to build cells
• Build more stronger cells in vascular plants
• Provides flexibility and aid

Turgor Pressure and Its Contribution to Support in Plants

• the pressure from a cell on its membrane
• Helps to hold the cell in place

Structure of Cell Types and Their Functions in Vascular Plants

• Epidermis protects form the ouside elements
• Parenchyma is flexible and helps photosynth
• Collenchyma is thickened and provides support

Structure and Functions of the Root System and Shoot System

• Helps protect from outisde elements
• Anchor itself in ground

Meristematic Tissue and Its Significance to Primary Growth

• It helps undifferentiated cells
• It grows the length in both root and shoot

Secondary Growth and Its Contribution to Mechanical Support

• Grows after an initial formation
• Helps plant deal with outside tension

Adaptations for Terrestrial Environments

• Aid in abosbing nutritents
• Spcialise d leaves maximize light
• Has lignins
• Distribute throughout
• Retain water with a waxy cuticle
• Provides gasses when appropriate

Distinguishing Characteristics of Animals

• They are multicellular
• Have a nervous system
• Consume food
• Lack a cellulose wall

Levels of Body Complexity Among Animal Phyla

• Tissues
• Organs
• Organs System

Hypothesis for the Origin of Animals from Ancient Protists

• Suggests that animals had special cells a long time ago

Features of Evolution in Animal Body Plans

• In animals, there is radical and biletral
• Complete and one way tracts
• Has special structural complexity and little organ system

Coelom Definition & Phyla

• Body space between walls and digestive

Gastrovascular Cavity vs. Alimentary Canal

• Gut with an opening to both sides
• Has both sides

Hydrostatic Skeleton, Exoskeleton, Endoskeleton

• fluid cavity
• Outer body that protects
• Internal skeleton

Phylogenetic Tree of Animal Phyla

• it organized the relations to it;s evolutionary nature

Major Characteristics of Animal Phyla

• Invertebrates: Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata
• Vertebrates: Ray-finned Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Mammals

Classes of Vertebrates

There exists different types like

• bony fish a skeleton full with good fins
• amphibians
• reptiles
• and mammals

Definitions of Biology Test

• There are multiple levels of biology test, for example with digestion ingesting is getting food and nutrients from food

Extracelluar Digestion vs Intercellar Digestion

• there is exterion done by insects where an ezyme helps ingest food or within as internal enzymes are used to engulf items

Evolutionary Significance of the trend from intracellular to extracellular digestion

• allows for stronger amounts of nutrients

Digestive Systems of Porifera, Cnidaria, and Annelida

• Sponges help digest things using filters
• And cnidaria have one way tracks with openings in jelly fish
• and annelida help process

Digestive Organs in Humans

• Mouth to help break the food
• Stomachs helps breakdown acids
• Small intestines digest and absorbs food
• Large helps water

Digestive Systems of Herbivores vs carnivores

• have harder food in their plants
• and carnivores easy easy with smaller systems

Definitions

• Ecology- study between organisms and envrios
• Bio- large geogrpahic with specific climate
• Communities- interacting groups

Fours types of Terrestrial Biomes and Clamitci Factors Influencing Their distribution

• Tundra - arctic and alpine (cold)

biomes like

• Taiga - Northern coniferous forest (also cold)
• Temperate deciduous forest - temp, for all
• Desert - dry

Distinction Between Organic and Inorganic Compounds

• Organic atoms - carbon hydrogen
• Inorganic atoms - no atoms, salts

Two Major Functions of organic Compounds and Sources of Building Blocks -

Organic Compounds:

• energy storage and release

• structural sport

  autotrophs(energy) heterotrophs(organic)

The Biogeochemical Cycle an its main componets

Biochemical Cycle - movement of elements

• Biotci - organisms
• A biotics - non living

Significance of Carbon And Nitrogen and Living Organisms and Cycles

• carban- significance buildings blocks
• Nitrogen - Key parts

Human Impacts on Biogeochemical Cycles and ecosystems

• Human Impacts
• Nitrogen and cabon cycle
• cycle

Definition of Trophic and Identification of members

• Tropic level is positing that that an organism had in food chain
• Has multiple levels

Distiction Between food Chain webs

• A line the food chain is a one-way trip
• A web is the collection of animals and is the bigger picture

Eneger flow chain and Cycle in ecsysytm

• Energy flow is not recycled and goes away quickly
• Chemical cycles for example Carbon flow with life, water and the atmosphere

Limited Number of Tropic Levels and Tropic Efficiency

• Trophic Efficeny - limited energy trasnfeered from one tropic level to another.

Energy Pyramid Of NET production

• Eneger Pyramid - amount of energy level that energy is at a the system , that show that in the is that is avaliable in that tropic

ItraSpecfic vs InnerSpecific Interactions

intraspefic -- within sp

• intra - between
  • one example

Four Major Types of Interactions

• Commpersiton
• Predation
• Mutualsims
• Commensalism with one helping and not hurting