Georgia Milestones: Cell Structure and Function

• The Georgia Milestones Study Guide covers Life Science, Physical Science, and Earth Science.

Life Science

• Focuses on cells, microorganisms, classification, and heredity.

Physical Science

• Focuses on matter, electricity, and physical and chemical changes.

Earth Science

• Focuses on landforms and constructive/destructive processes.

Cells

• Basic unit of life and structure, microscopic, and made of organelles with specific functions.
• Nucleus: controls cell activities.
• Nuclear membrane: protects and controls what goes in and out of the nucleus.
• Cell membrane: protects and controls what goes in and out of the cell.
• Cytoplasm: gel-like substance holding organelles and keeps the cell's shape.
• Vacuole: liquid-filled space storing water, food, and waste.
• Mitochondria: rod-shaped, breaks down, stores, and releases energy.
• Golgi bodies: package and move proteins out of the cell.
• Ribosomes: make and store protein.
• Endoplasmic reticulum: moves materials around the cell.
• Plant cells have Chloroplasts: which contain chlorophyll for making their own food
• Plant cells have Cell walls: that maintains stiffness and structure.
• Tissues: group of cells with a specific function
• Organs: group of tissues with a specific function
• Organ system: a group of organs working together to make a body

Microorganisms

• Can be helpful or harmful, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, and algae.
• Bacteria: streptococcus, yogurt, vinegar, salmonella, break down dead organisms, make food and digest it and can spoil food, cause sickness in humans, and plants.
• Fungus: mushrooms, mold, yeast, can be used to create foods and can make humans sick, and spoil food
• Viruses: parasite ex. measles, chicken pox, Covid-19, and flu. Used for vaccines, but truly not helpful and dangerous to health of living organisms
• Algae: plant-like organisms ex. seaweed, green pool slime Produces oxygen, can be eaten and can produce toxins, contaminate water
• Protozoa: single-celled, eat bacteria, and fungi. Ex. malaria, decomposes and causes dangerous disease and death

Heredity/Traits

• Inherited trait: passed down from parents (eye color, hair color, height, etc.).
• Acquired trait: gained after birth (scars, speaking Spanish, pierced ears, leaves turning brown).
• Learned behavior: learned through experience (ABCs, riding a bike, sports abilities).
• Instinct: inherited behavior (animals hunting, birds migrating, hibernation).
• Gene: part of a chromosome containing DNA (determines hair color, face shape, hair texture).
• Chromosome: rod-shaped coil of DNA with 23 pairs, 46 total.
• DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid stored in the cell's nucleus and carries genetic information.

Electricity

• Electric charge: basic property of tiny particles in matter.
• Protons: positive charge (+).
• Electrons: negative charge (-).
• Attract: (+,-) and (-,+).
• Repel: (+,+) and (-,-).
• Electric current: flow of electric charges.
• Electric circuits: the pathway for electric current (open or closed).
• Static electricity: build-up of electrons, natural form of electricity.
• Insulators: material doesn't easily conduct heat and electricity.
• Conductors: material that easily conducts electrical current and heat.
• Open circuit: incomplete pathway, electrons can't flow, load doesn't work, gaps present.
• Closed circuit: complete pathway, no gaps, load is working.
• All circuits must have: power source, conductor/wires, and load.
• Series Circuit: circuit with the electric current passing through a single path. (Christmas lights, flashlight)
• Parallel circuit: circuit with the electric current passing through more than one path. (homes, neighborhoods)

Magnetism

• Occurs naturally with magnetite.
• Magnet: attracts iron and other metals.
• Magnetic Field: space where a magnet's force acts.
• Magnetic poles: areas of greatest force (north and south).
• Magnetic attraction: opposite poles pull towards each other (N&S).
• Magnetic repulsion: same poles push away from each other (N&N), (S&S).
• Bar magnet: permanent magnet (magnetite), strong poles.
• Electromagnet: temporary magnet needing power source and wire, controllable.

Classification

• Scientists classify organisms based on characteristics for Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Genus, Species.
• Taxonomy: hierarchy for classifying organisms.
• Kingdoms: Animal, Plant, Fungi, Bacteria, Protist.
• Animal kingdom: classified by invertebrate and vertebrate.
• Invertebrate: animal without a backbone (ex. insects, mollusks, spiders).
• Vertebrate: animal with a backbone (amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds, fish).
• Mammals: hair/fur, live on land or water, born alive, skeleton, lungs.
• Birds: feathers, live on land, eggs, skeleton "hollow bones", lungs.
• Fish: scales, water, eggs, cartilage, gills.
• Amphibians: slimy and smooth, born in water and then transfer to land, eggs in water, skeleton, lungs.
• Reptiles: dry and scaly, live on land, eggs, skeleton, lungs.

Plant Kingdom

• Nonvascular: plant without tubes for transporting water/nutrients. (ex. moss, ferns).
• Vascular: plant with tubes for transporting water/nutrients. (ex. flowers, trees).
• Angiosperm: flowering plant with enclosed seeds, uses pollen to reproduce and creates fruits, veggies and flowers. (ex. apples, pears, tulips).
• Gymnosperm: vascular plant with exposed seeds forming cones, doesn't produce flowers or fruits. (ex. evergreen trees, pine trees).
• Spores: plants don't always reproduces through seeds, spores are tiny cells, non vascular plants use spores.

Matter

• Has mass and takes up space.
• Properties: size, state of matter, odor, texture, shape.
• Elements: building blocks of matter, one kind of atom (ex. gold, iron, copper).
• Atom: smallest unit of an element with that element's properties.
• Molecules: two or more atoms chemically joined, properties of those elements.
• Mixture: physical combination of two or more types of matter. (ex. salad, trail mix).
• Solution: one object dissolves in another, reverted by evaporating the liquid.
• Changing states of matter: matter changes states
• Solid to liquid: melting point.
• Liquid to solid: freezing point.
• Liquid to gas: boiling point.
• Gas to liquid: condensation.
• Solid to gas: sublimation.
• Physical Properties: smell, state of matter, size, shape, texture, color etc.
• Physical change: changing the physical property of matter (cutting paper, chopping lettuce, melting ice).
• Mass: the total amount of matter in an object, never lost.
• Density: how tightly packed particles are in an object.
• Weight: the force of gravity between Earth and an object.
• Volume: amount of space an object takes up.
• Chemical properties: observed when matter changes completely into new matter.
• Chemical change: matter completely changes to new matter by adding heat (energy).
• Chemical reaction: one or more new substances are created. Ex photosynthesis, cooking an egg

Landforms

• Earth's surface is always changing through constructive and destructive processes.
• Constructive process: builds up earth's surface (deposition).
• Destructive process: breaks/destroys the earth's surface (weathering and erosion).
• Weathering: breaking of earth's crust into sediment.
• Mechanical: physical breaking of rock or sediment by ice, wind, water, animals
• Chemical: rock turns to new matter as water dissolves minerals in the rocks and chemicals in the air dissolve the rock (caves, sinkholes)
• Biological: living things breaking down rocks

Erosion

• The carrying away of sediment by moving water, wind, or ice. Examples: Grand Canyon
• Plate tectonics: giant plates of rock slowly moving across Earth's surface (4 inches/year).
• Plate: slab of rock creating the lithosphere.
• Converging boundaries: plates move toward each other, causing uplift or subduction (mountains, ocean trenches).
• Diverging boundaries: plates move away from each other, magma fills gaps (volcanoes).
• Transform boundaries: plates slide past each other (earthquakes).
• Fault: crack in Earth's crust.
• Seismic waves: shaking, sudden breaks.
• Fault lines: crack in earth's crust where movement occurs.
• Earthquakes: violent shaking of crust, destructive and constructive.
• Seismograph: used to measure earthquakes.
• Richter scale: measures earthquake strength.
• Epicenter: point on earth's surface directly above earthquake's focus.
• Volcanoes: molten rock (lava) flows through a crack, destructive and constructive.
• Ring of Fire: area between Asia/North America with active volcanoes.
• Floodplain: wide flat area built by heavy rainfall and overflowing rivers.
• Moraine: created when glaciers melt and deposits sediment.
• Delta: created by slowing of moving water, where the river flows into the ocean or lake. (Deposition)
• Cliff: created by wind and ocean waves. (Weathering and Erosion)
• Cave: created by chemical reactions between minerals in the rock and water (Chemical Weathering)
• Volcano: constructive & destructive process, builds land with lava during eruptions.
• Beach: created by ocean currents and waves (Deposition)
• Valley: created by glaciers (Weathering & Erosion)
• Glacier: Large, slow moving piece of ice that erodes sediment (Weathering & Erosion)
• Canyon: created by rivers eroding sediment and soil (Weathering & Erosion)
• Sand dune: created by wind (Deposition)
• Sea stacks: created by wind and water eroding sediment's base (Weathering & Erosion)
• Plateau: created by winds eroding rock (Weathering & Erosion)
• Mountains: created by plates colliding and uplifting.

Controlling Constructive and Destructive Processes:

• Dams: control flooding, can produce energy.
• Levee: raised bank prevents floods.
• Groin: structure on coastlines to prevent erosion.
• Sea walls: protect the coastline by absorbing waves.
• Beach nourishment: replenishes beach fronts with pumped-in sand.
• Contour plowing: farmers plow across hillsides to prevent erosion.
• Terracing: farmers plant crops on hillsides to prevent erosion.