geo

Human vs. Physical Geography

• Physical geography studies Earth's natural features (air, water, soil).
• Human geography studies human populations and their environmental impact.

GPS vs. GIS

• GPS (Global Positioning System): A network of satellites used to determine locations on Earth. A receiver uses signals from at least four satellites to calculate its position.
• GIS (Geographic Information System): A system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to locations on Earth. Creates digital maps, analyzing spatial relationships.

Geographic Inquiry Model

• Ask: A geographic question (descriptive and conceptual).
• Acquire: Gather geographic resources (data, maps, charts).
• Explore: Analyze data for trends and relationships.
• Analyze: Interpret data and form conclusions.
• Act: Apply new knowledge for decision-making.

Eras of Earth's History

• Eras are periods in Earth's history, each with particular characteristics. Eras include: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

Precambrian Era

• 4.6 billion years ago to the start of the Paleozoic era.
• Longest era (87% of Earth's history).
• Early Earth was molten lava; continents formed as lava cooled.
• Mountain formation from continent collisions.
• First unicellular lifeforms (bacteria and algae).

Paleozoic Era

• Pangea formed. Continents moved, Appalachian Mountains formed.
• Swamps dominated North America.
• Life transitioned from ocean to land (fish, reptiles, insects, plants).

Fossil Locations

• Fossils are found in sedimentary rock layers.
• Remains of organisms buried under sediments, which transformed into rock.
• Oldest layers are at the bottom.

Mesozoic Era

• Pangea began to break apart (continental drift).
• Rocky Mountains formed.
• Age of reptiles (dinosaurs emerged). Dinosaurs went extinct during this era (likely due to a meteor).
• Mammals and flowering plants appeared.

Cenozoic Era

• Ice ages occurred, with warm periods between.
• Great Lakes formed.
• Continents took on present shapes.
• Rocky Mountains were fully formed.
• Age of mammals (horses, sheep, cows).
• Modern humans emerged.

Five Fields of Geography

• Physical: Landforms, climate, soil.
• Urban: Cities, land use, urban issues (transportation, pollution).
• Social: People and their interaction with the environment.
• Environmental: Surroundings and human impact.
• Economic: Activities that produce, distribute, and consume goods.

Landforms

• Natural features on Earth's surface.

Landform Regions

• Regions characterized by a specific type of physical features (mountains, plains, rivers, lakes).

Landform Formation Factors

• Geology (plate tectonics, mountains, plains).
• Glaciation (land sculpting).

Canada's Landform Regions (7)

• Western Cordillera
• Interior Plains
• Canadian Shield
• Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Lowlands
• Hudson Bay - Arctic Lowlands
• Appalachian Mountains
• Innuitian Mountains

Canadian Shield

• Large, rocky region around Hudson Bay; covers half of Canada.
• Glaciers created thousands of lakes and swamps.
• Rich in minerals, leading to significant mining.

Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands

• Southern Ontario and Quebec regions.
• Densely populated; major area for energy, mining, construction, and farming.

Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands

• Primarily in Nunavut, along Hudson and James Bays.
• Formed through glacial melting and climate changes.
• Fragile ecosystems, vulnerable to climate change.

Interior Plains

• Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Northwest Territories, Yukon.
• Mainly flat or gently rolling areas (prairies).
• Abundant natural resources (oil, fertile soil, minerals).

Appalachian Mountains

• Eastern Canada.
• Formed by plate movements. Abundant in water, good soil, and ideal climate.

Innuitian Mountains

• Primarily on Ellesmere Island.
• Formed by moving glaciers. Important for its fragile ecosystem.

Western Cordillera

• British Columbia, Yukon, Alberta.
• Young geologically; formed through plate collisions.
• Major forests and lumber production. Important for fishing and mining.

Cordillera Meaning

• Mountains or mountainous region.

Glaciations

• Glaciers scraped the Canadian Shield, leaving it with little soil and rounded bedrock.

Lowlands

• Flat or rolling areas; form drainage basins of major water systems (lakes, bays).

Plains

• Large, flat areas, generally with good fertile soil (prairies).

Weather vs. Climate

• Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
• Climate: Long-term average atmospheric conditions.

Canadian Climate Variations

• Large size.
• Differences in elevation.
• Coastal vs. inland climates.
• Weather systems moving across the country.

Maritime vs. Continental Climates

• Maritime: Near water, more stable temperatures and higher rainfall.
• Continental: Inland, more extreme temperature variations and lower rainfall.

Climate Factors (LOWERN)

• Latitude.
• Ocean Currents.
• Winds and Air Masses.
• Elevation.
• Relief.
• Near Water.

Latitude

• Distance from the equator; affects temperature. Further from equator, cooler.

Ocean Currents

• Warm currents moderate temperatures. e.g., North Pacific Current.

Winds and Air Masses

• Polar (cold), Maritime (moist), Continental (dry), Tropical (warm).
• Prevailing Westerlies, influenced by the jet stream which directs the temperature.

Elevation (Altitude)

• Higher altitudes = lower temperatures (lapse rate).

Relief

• Elevation changes influence precipitation. Windward side gets more rain (or snow), while the leeward side is drier (rain shadow).

Near Water

• Large bodies of water moderate temperature changes.

Human-Made Climate Factors

• Urban areas create higher temperatures due to heat absorption/re-radiation by buildings & pavement.
• Pollution can result in higher precipitation levels downwind of cities.

Canada's Climate Regions

• Arctic, Taiga, Cordilleran, Pacific Maritime, Boreal, Prairie, Southeastern, Atlantic Maritime.

Arctic Climate

• Very cold winters. Short, cool summers; low precipitation.

Taiga Climate

• Subarctic – large temperature range. Long winters, short summers, low precipitation (mostly summer).

Atlantic Maritime Climate

• Cool winters, warm summers, high precipitation

Southeastern Climate

• Cool winters, hot summers, moderate precipitation.

Boreal Climate

• Long cold winters, short cool/warm summers, low precipitation

Prairie Climate

• Very cold winters, very hot summers, low precipitation

Western Cordillera Climate

• Varies with elevation - temperature and precipitation vary significantly.

Pacific Maritime Climate

• Mild winters, warm summers, very high precipitation

Climate Graphs

Illustrate average temperatures and precipitation for an area over a year.

Plant Growth Requirements

• Heat and moisture.

Natural Vegetation Regions of Canada

• Tundra, West Coast Forest, Cordilleran Vegetation, Boreal and Taiga Forest, Grassland, Mixed Forest, Deciduous Forest

Tundra Vegetation

• Above the tree line; permafrost limits plant species.
• Small shrubs, mosses, and lichens.

West Coast Forest Vegetation

• Mild, wet conditions support large old-growth forests.

Cordilleran Vegetation

• Varied vegetation due to elevation, temperature, rainfall, and soil differences.

Boreal/Taiga Forest Vegetation

• Largest region; coniferous trees; acidic soil limits farming.

Grassland Vegetation

• Native grasses, cacti, sagebrush; adapted to arid conditions.

Mixed Forest Vegetation

• Transition zone between boreal and deciduous forests, with both types of trees.
• Historically a significant logging area

Deciduous Forest Vegetation

• Southwestern Ontario; maple and other broadleaf trees.
• Historically cleared for agriculture/development.

Coniferous vs. Deciduous Trees

• Coniferous: Cone-bearing; needle-like leaves; evergreen.
• Deciduous: Broadleaf; leaves fall seasonally.

Glaciers

• Large ice masses formed by snow accumulation.

Glacial Advance/Retreat

• Ice movement outward (advance) or inward (retreat).

Striations

• Scratches or grooves on rock surfaces from glacier movement.

Deposition

• Process of sediment settling in new locations.

Erosion

• Breakdown and transportation of rock, sand, and soil.

Earth's Layers

• Crust, mantle, core.

Volcanoes

• Magma from the mantle rises through the crust to create volcanic eruptions.

Pangaea

• Supercontinent; comprised all present-day continents.

Moraine

• Material left behind by a glacier (soil, rock).

Alfred Wegener's Continental Drift Evidence

• Continental fit.
• Similar fossils on separated continents.
• Similar mountain ranges on different continents.
• Glacial evidence.

Pangaea Movement

• Driven by plate tectonics.

Plate Movement Mechanisms

• Convection currents in the Earth's mantle.

Number of Earth's Plates

• Approximately 20.

Divergent Plates

• Plates moving apart (rift zones); earthquakes and volcanic activity.

Convergent Plates

• Plates colliding; trenches or mountains; subduction.

Transform Plates

• Plates sliding past each other; fault lines (e.g., earthquakes in California).

Natural Disasters/Hazards

• Earth processes (volcanoes, earthquakes) or weather events (hurricanes, floods) that create harms.

Integration Areas

• Trade, political power, and culture.

Sustainability

• Meeting present needs without harming future generations.

Renewable vs. Non-Renewable Energy

• Renewable: Hydro, solar, wind, geothermal (renewed quickly).
• Non-renewable: Fossil fuels, oil, coal, nuclear (take long times to replace).

Levels of Industry (5)

• Primary: Extraction (mining, farming).
• Secondary: Manufacturing.
• Tertiary: Services.
• Quaternary: Information (research, education).
• Quinary: Top management, government decision-makers.

Secondary Industry (Manufacturing)

• Raw materials change to usable products; increasing value.

Tertiary Industry (Service Industries)

• Provide services supporting other sectors.

Primary Industry (Extraction)

• Extracting natural resources like minerals or growing crops.

Quaternary Industry (Information)

• Creating, processing, and disseminating information (education, research).

Quinary Industry

• Control and management of large industries and governments.

Basic vs. Non-Basic Industries

• Basic: Bring new money (factories).
• Non-basic: Support local economy (hospitals).

Developed vs. Developing Countries

• Developed countries generally have higher incomes, better infrastructure, literacy, and life expectancy.

Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)

• Transitioning from developing to developed status, with rapid economic growth.

Dependency Theory

• Developing countries are dependent on developed countries.

World Systems Theory (Core-Periphery Model)

• Developed countries at the core, developing countries at the periphery.

Lewis Structural Change Model

• Development linked to shifting workers from agriculture to manufacturing.

Rostow's Stages of Economic Development

• Five stages of economic growth (traditional, take-off, maturity, high consumption).

Traditional Society (Trade Theory)

• Primarily agricultural; low technology, trading, and scientific knowledge.

Transitional Stage (Trade Theory)

• Developing manufacturing and broader international outlook.

Take-off (Trade Theory)

• Period of rapid industrialization, focused on a specific industry.

Drive to Maturity (Trade Theory)

• Continued growth, technology expansion, and economic diversification.

Age of High Mass Consumption (Trade Theory)

• Consumerist capitalist economy, mass production.

Comparative Advantage

• Lower opportunity cost of producing goods/services.

Free Trade Agreements

• Agreements reducing or eliminating trade barriers (tariffs).

Tariffs

• Taxes on imported goods.

Opportunity Cost

• Value of the next best alternative.

NAFTA/USMCA

• Trade agreement between Canada, US, and Mexico (modified).

Demography

• Study of human populations (distribution, density, growth).

Census

• Official population count.

Ecumene

• Settled areas of a country.

Population Distribution

• Pattern of population density across an area.

Population Density

• Number of people per unit area.

Distribution Patterns

• Peripheral, linear, nucleated, dispersed.

Settlement Attractions

• Physical (climate, water) and economic (jobs, resources) factors.

Birth Rate

• Births per 1000 people.

Death Rate

• Deaths per 1000 people.

Rate of Natural Increase

• Difference between birth and death rates.

Net Migration Rate

• Difference between immigration and emigration rates.

Population Growth Rate

• Combined natural increase and net migration rates.

Population Pyramid Age Groups

• Pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-reproductive.

Expansive Population Pyramid

• High birth rate, large youth population, low life expectancy.

Stationary Population Pyramid

• Balanced age groups; stable population.

Constrictive Population Pyramid

• Low birth rate; larger older age group; longer life expectancy.

Demographic Transition Model

• Stages of population change linked to economic development.

Stage 1: High Stationary

• High birth and death rates; slow population growth.

Stage 2: Falling Death Rates

• Improved health/sanitation; rapid population growth.

Stage 3: Falling Birth Rates

• Family planning; slower population growth.

Stage 4: Low Birth and Death Rates

• Stable population.

Stage 5: Population Decline

• Low birth rate; aging population; declining population.

Dependency Load

• Portion of population needing support (children, elderly).

Migration

• Permanent relocation for individuals.

Emigration

• Leaving a location.

Immigration

• Moving into a location.

Push Factors

• Factors that drive people to leave a location.

Pull Factors

• Factors that attract people to a location.

Point System (Immigration)

• Weighted criteria for evaluating immigrants.

Economic Class Immigrants

• Contribute to Canada's economy.

Family Class Immigrants

• Sponsored by relatives in Canada.

Refugee Immigrants

• Escape persecution or other serious circumstances.

Indigenous Peoples of Canada

• First Nations, Inuit, Métis (distinct cultures and populations).

Urban Sprawl

• Expansion of urban areas outwards (suburbs).

Modern Land Uses (TRIIOC)

• Residential, Transportation, Industrial, Open Space/Recreational, Institutional, Commercial.

Livability

• Characteristics influencing quality of life in a location.

Bid-Rent Theory

• Value of land determined by proximity to the market.

Land-Use Conflicts

• Interference between different land uses (e.g. noise, pollution).

Mega-city

• City with over 10 million residents.