Geographies of Natural Resources

Geographies of Natural Resources

• This lecture covers geographies of natural resources with reference to world economy, agriculture, and food
• Lecture date is March 6, 2025
• Dr. Shaneica Lester

Natural Resources Definition

• Natural resources are physical entities with social and cultural meanings
• They are materials or commodities useful to society and valuable to people, like food, water, soil, plants, animals, minerals, and fuels
• A resource's utility depends on the level of economic development and the period in history
• Natural resources are technologically, economically, socially, and culturally useful, feasible and acceptable to use.

Types of Natural Resources

• Biomass includes wood, crops, food, fuel, feed, and plant-based materials
• Fossil fuels include coal, gas, and oil
• Metals include iron, aluminum, and copper
• Non-metallic minerals include sand, gravel, and limestone
• Water and land

Availability of Natural Resources

• Some countries possess abundant supplies of resources while others face scarcity
• Angola, Venezuela, and Sudan have abundant natural resources, constituting 95-100% of their exports
• Japan imports most of its raw materials
• China has domestic natural resources but imports raw materials to fuel economic growth

Historical Changes in Natural Resource Use

• Flint was a stone age weapon
• Coal had limited use before the Industrial Revolution, declining in importance since then
• Bauxite was not useful until aluminum smelting was invented
• Cobalt is used in ion-lithium batteries for electronics

Natural Resources and Production

• All industrial and agricultural production relies on the natural resource base
• Economic growth and prosperity depend on the abundance and availability of natural resources
• Depletion of natural resources and degradation of the environment is occuring as economic development continues

Sustainability: Optimistic Viewpoint

• Economic growth can continue indefinitely with technological advances and recycling offsetting raw material limitations
• Fracking is a new method of extracting oil from oil shales, which allows economic growth

Sustainability: Pessimistic Viewpoint

• Inherent limits to economic growth exist due to finite resources
• Usable resources can be exhausted, making natural resource stocks inadequate, to support modern society's demands at current population growth rates
• Meadows 1972 "Limits to Growth" posits doomsday predictions similar to Malthus
• Every projection predicted collapse of the world economy in under 100 years, modelling vast amounts of data with different assumptions

Renewable Resources

• Renewable flow resources include food crops, forests, grasslands, animals and fish
• They replenish relatively quickly in a timeframe relevant to people and society
• Maximum sustainable yield is the maximum volume/rate of use that does not impair renewal/productivity

Non-Renewable Resources

• They are not replaced by natural processes within a useful timeframe, taking millions of years to form
• Fossil fuels are an example
• Essentially fixed in supply, though many non-renewable resources, like iron and glass, can be recycled.

Metallic Mineral Resources

• Metal ores consist of iron, aluminum, copper, and other non-ferrous metals
• Metal ores made up 9.5% (2.6 billion tons) of global extraction in 1970, increasing to 10% (9.1 billion tons) by 2017
• Metal ore extraction experienced 2.7% average annual growth
• Ferrous ore extraction grew by 3.5% annually, faster than the 2.3% rate for non-ferrous ores
• Metals are crucial for urban development, energy, transportation, and manufacturing

Ferrous Metals

• High transport costs are characteristic of ferrous metals like iron ore
• Cheaper alternative sources are closing down ferrous metal fields, resulting in scaled-down operations in the USA and Canada
• In 1945, the USA produced 56% of the world's iron ore, less than 2% now

Non-Ferrous Metals

• Were rarely used before the 20th century
• Aluminum: Australia has 40% world bauxite, while Guinea has the largest reserves
• Copper: Chile controls 25% of world reserves and 30-40% of the world's exports
• Lead and zinc: Major resources within Australia, China, USA, and Peru

Non-Metallic Mineral Resources

• Non-metallic minerals include sand, gravel, and clay
• Non-metallic minerals grew from 34% (9.2 billion tons) in 1970 to over 48% (43.8 billion tons) in 2017
• The increase reflects shift from biomass to mineral-based resources
• There has been concentrated with 10 economies accounting for over 68% of total extraction in 2017
• China, India and the U.S. lead global material extraction at 68%

Per Capita Extraction

• Australia leads with 93.3 tons
• Canada is second with 36.7 tons
• India's lower per capita rate suggests potential future surge in extraction
• Non-metallic minerals use greater rates of extraction than metallic minerals
• Fertilizer minerals like potash and phosphates with precious and semi-precious stones fall within this category

Mineral Substitutes

• Some minerals are replaced by substitutes through new technologies- plastic is an example
• Plastic, a post-Bronze Age material (1907), substitutes metals, woods, and natural fibers
• Plastics, polymers made from coal, natural gas, crude oil, and plants (cellulose) through polymerization
• Production changes geographical supply/demand patterns, like PVC replacing copper pipes when copper prices rose in the 1970s

Plastics

• First produced in the 1920s
• Single-use plastics or disposable plastics contribute to pollution, especially of oceans
• The annual plastic production is 300 million tons, and 50% is single-use
• The marine environment is particularly vulnerable, with about 10% of plastics produced annually ending up in oceans
• Water, wave action, and sunlight break down plastics into microplastics, some stronger than steel
• Microplastics consumed by fish are an important part of the human diet
• Carbon fiber is used in motor cars/aircraft, reducing aluminum use

Reuse and Recycling

• Recycling prevents the waste of potentially useful minerals
• Recycling reduces consumption of fresh raw materials and energy usage
• Recycling reduces pollution from incineration and landfill
• Recyclable materials include glass, paper, metals, cardboard, plastic, tyres, textiles and electronics
• Collection points are needed for organizations to bring recyclable materials

Circular Economy Concept

• Traditional linear production models extract raw materials, process them, and manufacture goods
• After consumption, products are discarded as waste, depleting natural resources
• Inefficiencies in this system lead to significant value loss throughout the production cycle
• The circular economy closes the loop, retaining value through reuse, repair, refurbishment, and remanufacturing

Circularity

• Recycling consumer waste and industrial waste
• Consumer waste: the costs of sorting and collection increasingly shifting to consumers
• Recycling metals: steel and aluminum plus silver, gold, brass, copper that is almost as valuable as copper from ore
• Recycling technologies are now sophisticated, with USA exporting US$28 billion in scrap metal, which supports 40,000 jobs
• Importing scrap metal is profitable in some countries such as Turkey, South Korea, India

Classification of Renewable/Non-Renewable Resources

• Renewable resources fall into two categories
• Critical zone resources are exploited to exhaustion if not properly managed
• Non-critical zone resources are not dependent on human activity, but can be temporarily overused (water) or degraded (air)

Energy Resources

• Renewable: Biomass, Solar, Wind, Wave, Tidal, Hydro, Geothermal
• Non-Renewable (Fossil Fuels): Coal, Oil, Natural Gas
• Nuclear

Renewable Resource Depletion

• Depletion of renewable resources with specific reference to world fish harvest
• Only 75% of the world's fish harvest is consumed by humans, 25% is processed into fish meal as livestock feed/fertilizer
• 61% is marine catch and 32% is from fish farming (aquaculture)
• Overfishing depleted many of the world's fish stocks like the Atlantic Cod
• Hi-tech fishing uses sonar/radar and factory trawlers for tuna

Tragedy of the Commons

• It explains depletion of some renewable resources

Classification of Renewable/Non-Renewable Resources Example

• Overfishing in the Caribbean
• Efforts to conserve fish stocks include increasing the mesh size of nets and fish sanctuaries
• Lobster and conch seasons are closed

Garrett Hardin: Tragedy of the Commons

• Ruin results from all men rushing, pursuing their own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons.
• Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all
• Renewable natural resources exist as a common pool available for all community members
• They are not under private ownership
• Medieval villages practiced common grazing land with villagers sharing equal access to graze their cows
• 'If every villager bases his action on self-interest to maximize what he can get from the resource, then sum of all these actions is a tragedy - the land will be overgrazed and everyone will suffer' = i.e. a free for all

Traditional Societies

• Many traditional societies had unwritten rules about using common resources sustainably
• Shifting cultivation agriculture was based on communal land tenure systems with communal grazing lands in pastoral societies
• Many traditional systems break down due to population increase/scarce land resources/increasing herd sizes
• Acting out of self-interest will deplete shared common resource leading to everyone being worse off
• Rational economic decision making to maximize individual profit,(economic theory) may not leads to market equilibrium

Open Access Resources

• Renewable resources like air/oceans, are “non-excludable”, viewed as 'owned' by everyone as "common property"
• Non-excludable open access resources are allocated on a “first-come, first-served" basis
• Rational users take as much as they want, leading to no conservation incentive and quick depletion of the resource
• Marine fisheries/wildlife game stocks are examples of open-access resources, that can be overexploited where individuals accumulate short-term gains and eventually outweigh long-term conservation goals from larger community

Circular Economy

• Circular economy aims to minimize waste and promote sustainability through reuse, recycling, and repurposing of resources in a closed-loop system
• It involves designing products for longevity and ease of disassembly to improve resource recovery
• Reduces environmental impact/dependency on finite resources (petroleum and minerals)
• Supports sustainable economic model with collaboration between businesses, policymakers, and consumers

Natural Resources

• Natural resources are materials occurring in nature and used by humans, such as energy production and industrial purposes
• Classified as renewable or non-renewable based on replenishment rate
• Includes water, air, minerals, forests, and wildlife
• Their distribution/abundance shape economic activities/human settlements
• Sustainability of natural resources is crucial for environmental conservation and long-term welfare

Open Access Resources

• Open acess resources have freely available materials boosting learning/research with insight without subscription barriers
• It encourages collaboration among scientists across disciplines worldwide
• Consists of journals, e-books, datasets, and multimedia resources accessible online
• Boosts equity in education through financial help to knowledge
• Often includes peer-reviewed content ensuring quality/credibility

Recycling/Resource Management

• Recycling and resource management involves the systematic collection, processing, and repurposing of materials to minimize waste and conserve resources, promoting sustainability and environmental health.
• Effective recycling reduces landfill waste/greenhouse gas emissions from waste decomposition
• Resource management strategies reduce consumption, reuse materials, and upcycle
• Public awareness/education improve recycling rates and participation
• Government regulations/incentives support recycling encouraging eco-friendly businesses

Renewable/Non-Renewable Resources

• Renewable resources replenish over time, like solar and wind
• Non-renewable resources deplete over time, such as fossil fuels
• Renewable resources are more environmentally friendly
• Alternative energy sources, geothermal and hydroelectric power, are renewable
• Efficient use and resource conservation vital to sustainable development

Sustainability

• The sustainability of natural resource use is balancing needs with environmental health, ensuring future resource availability and minimizing impact
• Sustainable practices involve renewable energy, agriculture, and responsible forestry
• Overexploitation leads to habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, and climate change which is threatening long term sustainability
• Conservation, recycling, and efficient resource management, are vital for sustainable development
• Community engagement and education foster awareness in practices, resources, and management

Tragedy of the Commons

• Hardin introduced the economic theory based on shared resources being overused from to selfishness
• Solutions include government regulations and privatization
• It can be seen with fisheries, grazing lands, and air pollution

Biomass

• It refers to organic materials derived from living organisms, and typically used as a renewable energy source
• Includes wood, crops, manure, used for energy production
• It is renewable if it is managed sustainably
• Converted into biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels

Critical Zone

• Critical zone resources are resources located in the Earth's critical zone, which supports the ecosystems, human life and agricultural practices
• Zone encompasses the soil, water, air, and biological elements
• Sustainably managed resources are needed for biodiversity combating climate change
• Key resources include soil, freshwater, minerals, and biodiversity
• Human activities such as deforestation and urbanization that can degrade critical zone resources

Economic Growth

• Economic growth refers to production in a country, usually measured by GDP
• An important indicator for the health and development of a nation
• Growth improves people's standards of living and infrastructure
• Factors that influence growth would be such as investment, technological progress, and government
• Policymakers are often promoting sustainable growth with consideration for the population

Ferrous Metals

• Essential and primarily composed of iron, essential for applications and construction, that shape the landscapes and economies
• Three ferrous metals are iron, steel, and cast iron
• These metals are recyclable and contribute to sustainable practices
• Regions with iron ore experience growth and industrial development
• The extraction and processing can lead to significant environmental impacts

Fossil Fuels

• Are natural resources formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals, burned to produce energy
• Three examples are coal, oil, and natural gas
• Have been the dominant source of energy worldwide for centuries
• Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases and contributes to climate change
• Extraction and combustion can have negative environmental and health impacts

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

• The highest amount of a resource which can be harvested wihout having to compromise its ability to replenish
• MSY is a concept in natural resource management
• Aims to maintain resource availability for current and future generations
• Balances harvesting enough to see to demand whilst safeguarding the given resource
• Considers ecological factors to ensure the resource is available for long term use

Microplastics

• Refers to tiny plastic particles less than 5mm that are found in oceans, waterways, and even the air.
• Come from the breakdown of larger plastic products such as microbeads in items for personal care
• Ingested by marine life, which in turn results in bioaccumulation in one's food chain
• Attract and release harmful chemicals posing potential risks to ecosystems and human health.
• Global presence highlights the widespread impact of plastic pollution on the environment

Mineral Resources

• Naturally occuring materials that have economic value; examples are metals, gemstones, and fossil fuels
• A large help to mining, construction, and manufacturing
• Countries who have these resources can benefit economically in part from increased exports
• Mining may lead to enviornmental degradation if not maintained sustainably
• Disputes can arise from mineral rich territories

Non-Critical Zone Resources

• Resources that do not pose immediate risks, but provide vital for sustainable development and community well being
• Common examples are air, water, and renewable energy sources
• Sustainable practices often involve community engagement to balance usage.
• Many of management stratagies include community engagement to balance usage.

Non-Ferrous Metals

• Metals that do not contain iron. Three examples are copper, aluminum and zinc
• Commonly used in certain industries, such as consctruction or electrical engineering
• More expensive than the non-ferrous as it costs more to obtain
• Due to their high scarp value, they're beneficial environmentally.

Non-Metallic Minerals

• Naturaly occuring products without metal that include items like limestone, gypsum, salt, and clay
• Minerals are essential in construction, such as for making cement, which include amendments to one's soil
• Used more for treatments with water
• Help with industrial applications

Non-Renewable Resources

• Resources that can not be replaced or easily replenished within a human lifetime
• Three example are fossil fuels, minerals, and nuclear energy
• Extracting them can negatively impact the envirrnment due to degradation from pollution
• Contribute to inequality between countries
• Needed to find alternatives

Plastic

• Plastic helps to impact the landscapes, the waste management, and the public due to the high ammount of pollution.
• Pollution tends to especially affect marine ecosystems, which endangers wildlife
• Waste management strategies have led export to other countries, especially developing countries
• Mircroplatics are another concern, posing many health risks
• City planning is needed

Recycling

• The turning of used products into new material so to reduce waste and to conserve resources
• Most commly includes plastics and materials such as paper/metals
• Benefits: reducing energy consumption
• The recycling symbol is internationally recognizable