Genetics: DNA, Chromosomes, and Epigenetics

DNA Composition

• DNA comprises nucleotides A, C, T, and G.

Chromosomes

• DNA is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans.

DNA Sequence

• All body cells contain the same DNA sequence.
• Some cells can express it differently.

DNA Location

• DNA is located in the nucleus.
• DNA isn't found in any other part of the cell.

Protein Composition

• Proteins are made of receptors.
• Proteins are made of hormones.
• Proteins are made of neurotransmitters.
• Proteins are made of enzymes.

Genetic Predisposition to Depression

• In twin studies, genetics play a role if monozygotic twins have a higher concordance rate for depression than dizygotic twins.

Genetic Disease Mutation

• The mutation where an extra nucleotide is added to DNA is an insertion.
• Insertion causes a change in the entire amino acid sequence of the protein.

Epigenetics

• Epigenetics can modify gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.

Gene Transcription Suppression

• Histone methylation and DNA methylation are epigenetic modifications associated with suppression of gene transcription.

Epigenetic Transmission Study

• Grandchildren of people exposed to famine have a greater predisposition to obesity and metabolic diseases.
• Hypermethylation of genes associated with energy storage in previous generations explains this phenomenon.

Identical Twins Study

• Identical twins can have different outcomes due to their environments, but they have same DNA makeup.
• Epigenetic modifications induced by the environment can explain differences in disease expression.

Transgenerational Inheritance

• Transgenerational inheritance example: A grandchild of a famine survivor has a higher risk of diabetes due to epigenetic changes in the insulin gene.

Experiential Inheritance example

• Grandchildren of people with post-traumatic stress show greater reactivity to stress.
• This is irrespective of them having experienced the trauma

Fetal Origins of Disease example

• An adult who was born with low weight due to maternal malnutrition has a greater risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease

Prenatal Allergen Exposure and Reduced Allergy Risk

• Prenatal exposure regulates immunological gene expression via epigenetic mechanisms, reducing predisposition to allergies.

Meditation Influence on Genetic Expression

• Meditation reduces activity in the HPA axis, diminishing cortisol production and modulating inflammatory gene expression.

Telomere Length Preservation

• Telomerase activation through healthy habits like exercise and stress reduction helps preserve its length.

Telomere Facts

• Telomeres shorten with each cell division.
• Telemere shortening is associated with aging.
• Chronic stress can accelerate telomere reduction through cortisol.
• A healthy lifestyle, does influence the length of telomeres.
• Elisa Epel's research showed caregivers of Alzheimer's patients have shorter telomeres due to sustained stress.

Mindfulness Impact on Telomeres

• Mindfulness can help reduce cognitive and physiological stress.
• This promotes better maintenance of telomeres.

Genetic Risk Report

• The genetic information alone is not sufficient to modify his conduct
• Needs additional support

Regulation of the Immune System

• Early exposure to pathogens can modulate the immune response through life.

Study in the role of amulets

• Lysann Damisch's study: the increased self-efficacy and persistence in the face of challenges explains the improvement in performance of people who believe in a lucky charm.

Intelligence Model

• Intelligence is the product of the interaction between genetics and environment allowing the expression and development of individual variations.

Fluid Intelligence example

• A child, who has never played chess, can rapidly learn the rules and basic strategies.

IQ Limitations

• IQ scores do not measure socio-emotional skills, creativity or practical intelligence, but are good at cognitive processing.

The relationship between IQ and life quality

• IQ score predicts the academic performance, but has a moderate correlation to the quality of life and inter-personal relationships.

Impact of Education on Intelligence

• The increase in IQ is most pronounced in childhood
• Positive effects need to be reinforced continuously

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Relationship to Cognitive Development

• Maternal DHA supplementation improves fetal cortical neurogenesis and postnatal synaptic connectivity during pregnancy.

Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxins and Infant Cognitive Development

• Prenatal exposure to toxins, can cause stress that causes inflammation and epigenetic alterations
• This can affect the neuroplasticity, the cognitive development and the functioning.

Aerobic Exercise Effects on Cognitive Function

• Aerobic exercise can cause increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
• Aerobic exercise results in the improvement of synaptic plasticity through neurotrophic factors like BDNF.

Aerobic Exercise in Preventing Cognitive Decline and Reducing Dementia Risk

• Aerobic exercise increases neurogenesis.
• Aerobic exercise improves cerebral blood flow through the neurotrophic factor.
• Aerobic exercise helps protects against the accumulation of amyloid plaques.

Aerobic Exercise Mechanism for Improving Cognitive Function through VEGF-BDNF Interaction

• VEGF promotes neurogenesis through angiogenesis, facilitating neuronal oxygenation.
• BDNF enhances synaptic plasticity and survival of new neurons.

Segmenting Information

• Chunking improves recent memory by reducing the cognitive load in working memory and grouping the elements into units.

Memory Consolidation

• Reconsolidation allows the update of the memories facilitation their modification after the memory.

Reconsolidation of Remote Memory

• Reconsolidation process allows memories to be updated.
• Reconsolidation allows their modification following each memory.

Preventing "The Intellectual Bulimia"

• Relate and use "chunking" to connect new information to other previous information.

HPA Axis and Memory

• A moderate cortisol level facilities the synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.

Stereotype development

• Stereotypes consolidate by the social categorization
• Social categorization is an autonomic process, that groups information.

Impact of Stress in Cognition

• Acute HPA axis activation improves the memory consolidation.
• Chronical HPA axis activation deteriorates the impact in the memory.

Placebo effect

• Modulates the pain from a neurobiologic perspective.
• Increases the dopamine production and endorphins in the incentive system.

Cognitive schemes theory

• Stereotypes generate expectations that can influence in the interpretation and events memory.

"Intellectual Bullimia" Phenomenon

• Learning pattern based in a short-term memorization
• It is quickly forgotten

Relation of stress over hippocampal function in the memory

• The moderate HPA levels activation can facilitate the memory, the chronical activation of the the HAP can deteriorate it.

Emotional Memory

• Implicit memory characteristic in the emotional regularion is store in the amygdala.
• Implicit memory automatically modulates conductual answers.

Pain modulation effect key through placebo analgesic response

• Analgesic response includes the activation of the stripping area
• Stripping area stimulates dopamine liberation in the black substance

Interactions between placebo effect and neurochemical systems

• The placebo effect can induce activity in the neural ganglia

Role of the psychosocial component in the therapeutic ritual

• The Dr-Patient relationship
• The clinical context
• Expectations
• All of these module the therapeutic response of the patient

Study of Kaptchuck et al. (2010)

• The activity of the pre-frontal cortex, with the following liberation of neutrotransmissors such as dopamine and opioids are plausible
• Activates the placebo effect, even whehn the patient is concious of it.

System I Thinking Disadvantage

• System I results in judgements made on polarizations that reinforce believes, and does not regard new evidence.

Thought Distortions

• Defensive thoughts tend to favor motivation.
• These kind of thoughts, act to encourage persistance when facing challenges.

Cognitive Therapy by Aaron Beck

• Identifies and adapts negative automatic thoughts.
• Seeks to improve the emotional well-being of the patient.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

• Thoughts and interpretation of a situation influence the emotions.

Theory of Learned Helplessness by Martin Seligman

• Individuals, in situations with loss of control, might develop a generalized passivity.

Interventions in attribution Style to Benefit Young People of Low Socioeconomic Status

• Allows them to embrace a more optimistic outlook and a perspective of control of their personal situations.

Principles of Positive Psychology

• Explores the human strengths that builds well-being and resiliency.

Relation between body image and a negative or pasitive view of the own body

• It does not exists

Studies sobre toleracia al color que factor se encontro como modulador de la percepcion del color

• Emotional status of the individual at the moment.

Function of Emotions in Memory and Learning

• Emotions facilitate encoding through amygdala activation, influencing memory consolidation.

Evidence that Emotions are Innate

• Blind babies show similar facial expressions of emotions as seeing babies.

Relationship Between Emotions and Context

• Expression and understanding of emotions can be influenced by culture, history, and personal experience.

Facial Expressions

• According to Paul Ekman basic, emotional, facial expressions are consistently and ubiquitously across culture.

Theory by Paul Ekman

• Guilt, is NOT within the theory of the six primary emotions by Paul Ekman

Findings by Paul Ekman

• Studied the faces and located around 50 facial muscles involved in the expression of emotions.

What is the goal of a Micro Expression Training Tool (METT)?

• To train individuals to recognize the micro-expression of faces and improve the emotional perception.

Facial Expression Categories

• Jack et al.'s Four main Facial Expression Categories: Joy, sadness, rath/repugnance, sorrow/surprise

Social Exchange of Non Verbal Communication

• Is fundamental in human interation
• Posture and facial expressions modify the interpretation of the words

Emotional Valence Impact on Health and Human Behavior

• Emotional valence influence in physical and mental health. The negative emotions can affect adversaly

Negative Emotions from an Evolutive Point of View Can Be Positive

• Facilita adaptative answers such as confrontation before thread.

"broaden and Build"

• Positive emotions expands, perceives and encourage the construction of internal resources.

Impact of Positive Emotions

• Helps expanding of mental processing and encouraging resources building on both the physical and social areas.

Connection Between Continous negative of Positive Emotions

• Positive and negative emotions cannot simlpy oppose one another, and can exist at the same time

What influences happiness?

• Positive psychology views happiness as subjective wellbeing.
• This idea is formed on the concept of introspection and self satisfaction in the subject.

Studies of happiness and the link to community

• Active participation in the community and its actvities relates the highest in the comunity

Emotions and the Cardiovasculatory system

• Negatives such as hosility raise cardiovasculartory activity.
• Can be an effect of a cardiovascular disease.

Reduccion del stress cardivascular

• The reduction to salivary cortisol, helps to make the system less active, and brings the heart rate down allowing better system function.

The study of Fredrickson

• Stated hat induction of a positive mind frame reduces the physciological
• Impacts stress and accelerates recovey.

Relationship between emtions and the physiological impact

• Activates hormones, neutotransmitters and responses from the nervous system.

Primary Function Of The Thalamus

• Help the integration and distribution toward propriate regional senses of the cerebral cortex

Fuction Of The Amygdala In The Emotional Memory

• In the emotional aspect, the amygdala provides the fast response, however this can lack precision.

Reaction time of potentially dangerous visual stimulus

• Thanks to the thalamus, which sends the information prior to the occipital lobe.

What happens when the amygdala malfunctions

• Agression increases

The associate of the prefrontal cortex is

• Modulating gratification.
• planning

The problem with the use of the polygraph

• Lie detectors that use change with related excitation. And can be triggered by many changes.

What is interoception?

• Allows to detect hunger.
• Allows to determine blood pressure.

The body postier emotion connection

• Defensive posture can intensity the emotions of rabia, relaxed can produce calmness.

James-Lange's Theory-

• First your heart beats fast then you register fear

Cannon Bard´s Theory

• Emotional experience vs physiological response:
  • Both do not directly infulence each other, but occur similtanously
  • The bodily reaction occurs at the same time, the feeling is felt

Emotional Intelligence Theory

• Mayer and Salovey theory - the concept:
  • Understanding the emotions of others and how you can use the information can influence cognition and behavior.

Emotional Inteligence

• Correlates with academic achievement.
• Lower emotionailty can indicate a likely hood of substance abuse.

How to improve emocional inteligence

• Improve with practice
• Training

Unconsious Emotion Control

• A person smiles at a loved one, unintentionally

Which is an example of emotional recontruction

• To think or review a situation from the aspect of the other person in order to understand the situation

The side effects of supression of emptions

• The effect can potentially worsen

James Penenbaker Study states that

• The emotional writing, has been useful.
• Can be a factor to aid with arthritis.
• Can also aid with the HIV effect.

Judith Moskowitz's study on patients with HIV

• The study implemented interventions that balance the validation of experiences.
• It also helps the support of positive emotions.