Genetics Basics

DNA Structure: Double helix model, composed of nucleotides (A, C, G, T)
Genetic Code: 3 nucleotides form a codon, specifying 1 amino acid
Mendel's Laws:
- Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation
- Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles for different traits are sorted independently
- Law of Dominance: Dominant allele masks recessive allele
Genetic Variation:
- Mutation: Changes in DNA sequence
- Gene flow: Movement of genes between populations
- Genetic drift: Random changes in allele frequency
Genetic Engineering: Manipulation of DNA to introduce desired traits

Ecosystems: Interaction between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components
Energy Flow: Energy from sunlight → producers → consumers → decomposers
Trophic Levels:
- Producers (plants, algae): Photosynthesis
- Primary consumers (herbivores): Feed on producers
- Secondary consumers (carnivores): Feed on primary consumers
- Tertiary consumers (top predators): Feed on secondary consumers
Population Dynamics:
- Exponential growth: Unlimited resources
- Logistic growth: Limited resources
Ecosystem Services:
- Provisioning (food, water, etc.)
- Regulating (climate, disease, etc.)
- Cultural (recreation, spiritual, etc.)

Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists (unicellular eukaryotes)
Cell Structure: Prokaryotic (no nucleus) vs. eukaryotic (nucleus) cells
Metabolic Pathways:
- Fermentation: Anaerobic energy production
- Respiration: Aerobic energy production
Microbial Interactions:
- Symbiosis: Mutualism (benefits both), commensalism (benefits one), parasitism (harms one)
- Horizontal gene transfer: Sharing genes between microorganisms
Microbial Applications:
- Food production (fermentation, probiotics)
- Medicine (antibiotics, vaccines)

Biomolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
Metabolic Pathways:
- Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose
- Citric acid cycle: Energy production
- Electron transport chain: Energy production
Enzymes: Biological catalysts, increasing reaction rates
Cellular Respiration: Energy production from glucose
Photosynthesis: Energy production from sunlight

Plant Structure:
- Roots: Absorption and anchorage
- Stems: Support and transport
- Leaves: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis: Light-dependent reactions, Calvin cycle
Plant Growth and Development:
- Cell division and differentiation
- Hormone regulation (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins)
Plant Responses:
- Tropisms (light, gravity, etc.)
- Defense mechanisms (chemical, structural)
Plant Evolution: Diversity of plant species, adaptations to environments

DNA Double Helix: Composed of nucleotides A, C, G, and T, with sugar and phosphate molecules
Genetic Code: 3 nucleotides form a codon, specifying 1 of 20 amino acids
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance:
- Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation, resulting in 2 alleles per trait
- Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles for different traits are sorted independently, increasing genetic variation
- Law of Dominance: Dominant allele masks recessive allele, influencing phenotype
Sources of Genetic Variation:
- Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence, resulting in new alleles
- Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations, increasing genetic variation
- Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequency, affecting small populations
Genetic Engineering: Direct manipulation of DNA to introduce desired traits, using biotechnology

Ecosystem Components: Interacting biotic (living: plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic (non-living: light, temperature, water)
Energy Flow: Energy from sunlight → producers (plants, algae) → consumers (herbivores, carnivores) → decomposers
Trophic Levels and Energy Transfer:
- Producers: Photosynthesis, converting sunlight into energy
- Primary Consumers: Feed on producers, transferring energy
- Secondary Consumers: Feed on primary consumers, transferring energy
- Tertiary Consumers: Feed on secondary consumers, transferring energy
Population Growth Patterns:
- Exponential Growth: Unlimited resources, resulting in rapid growth
- Logistic Growth: Limited resources, resulting in slowed growth
Ecosystem Services:
- Provisioning Services: Providing food, water, and other resources
- Regulating Services: Regulating climate, disease, and other environmental factors
- Cultural Services: Providing recreational, spiritual, and other cultural benefits

Microorganism Types: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists (unicellular eukaryotes)
Cell Structure: Prokaryotic (no nucleus, e.g., bacteria) vs. eukaryotic (nucleus, e.g., protists) cells
Metabolic Pathways:
- Fermentation: Anaerobic energy production, resulting in lactic acid or ethanol
- Respiration: Aerobic energy production, using oxygen to generate ATP
Microbial Interactions:
- Symbiosis: Mutualism (both benefit), commensalism (one benefits), parasitism (one harms)
- Horizontal Gene Transfer: Sharing genes between microorganisms, promoting adaptation
Microbial Applications:
- Food Production: Fermentation, probiotics, and food preservation
- Medicine: Antibiotics, vaccines, and disease treatment

Biomolecule Types: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Metabolic Pathways:
- Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose, generating ATP and NADH
- Citric Acid Cycle: Energy production, generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2
- Electron Transport Chain: Energy production, generating ATP from NADH and FADH2
Enzyme Function: Biological catalysts, increasing reaction rates and efficiency
Cellular Respiration: Energy production from glucose, involving glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain
Photosynthesis: Energy production from sunlight, involving light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle

Plant Structure: Roots (absorption, anchorage), stems (support, transport), and leaves (photosynthesis)
Photosynthesis: Light-dependent reactions (generating ATP and NADPH) and the Calvin cycle (fixing CO2)
Plant Growth and Development:
- Cell Division and Differentiation: Formation of tissues and organs
- Hormone Regulation: Auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins regulating growth and development
Plant Responses:
- Tropisms: Growth responses to light, gravity, and touch
- Defense Mechanisms: Chemical (e.g., toxins) and structural (e.g., thorns) defenses
Plant Evolution: Diversity of plant species, adaptations to environments, and evolutionary innovations