Genesis of Pakistan History

Genesis of Pakistan

• Genesis of Pakistan is a debated topic in the history of the Indian subcontinent (South Asia)
• Some say the origin was in 711 A.D. with Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh, which established Muslim rule
• Others suggest the origin was after the Revolt of 1857, when Muslims struggled to regain ground after losing their Mughal empire
• The origin of Pakistan was deep-rooted and linked to the presence of Muslims in India
• This began with the Arab conquest of Sindh and the long Muslim rule in India
• Dynasties that ruled India included the Ghazanavis, Ghurids, Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughluqs, Sayyids, Lodhis, and the Mughals
• Centuries-old Mughal rule, starting in 1526, ended with the British East India Company in 1857-58

British Rule and the Rise of Muslim Identity

• The failure of the 1857 Revolt and the start of direct British rule led Muslims to revive their position in India
• The British introduced a representative government system into India through the 1892 act
• The British system was based on census reports, which made Muslims a minority
• Hindus became the majority
• Muslims demanded a separate state due to Hindu indifference and hostility; this demand happened in March 1940 and was named Pakistan

British Advent in Subcontinent

• In 1600 C.E., the East India Company was established in England
• John Watts, a British businessman, founded the company
• Queen Elizabeth granted the company a charter to trade in areas east of Africa in 1602
• The charter included the Subcontinent, Indonesia, and Malaysia
• The East India Company failed to gain profits in Indonesia and landed its first British ship in Surat in 1608
• Mughal Emperor Jahangir did not allow the British to trade in the Subcontinent
• In 1612, Khurram (Shah Jahan), governor of Gujarat, gave limited permission to the British
• The British established their first factory in Surat in 1613
• James I sent Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir's court in 1614, and the British were allowed to trade across the Subcontinent

European Influence and British Dominance

• The Portuguese opened the sea route to the Subcontinent
• Vasco de Gama was the first European to open the sea route in 1496
• The Dutch were the next European nation
• England was the third European country to trade with the Subcontinent
• Portuguese and Dutch restricted themselves to small areas within the Subcontinent
• The British tried their luck all over the Subcontinent, which paid off
• Within 150 years, the British were strong enough to challenge local and Mughal rulers

Attempts to Prevent British Control

• The British aimed to control the Subcontinent through economic and political means
• In 1757, the British challenged the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, over factory fortification
• The Nawab was defeated at the Battle of Plassey by Robert Clive due to betrayal by Mir Jaffer
• In 1764, Mir Qasim, Shujaud-Daula, and Shah Alam II fought against the British at the Battle of Buxar, and were defeated
• In 1765, the Treaty of Allahabad was signed, and Shah Alam II granted Diwani rights to the British
• Robert Clive became the first Governor of Bengal

Post-1857 Muslim Struggle

• The Revolt of 1857 marked the end of Muslim rule and the start of a difficult phase for Muslims in India
• The British viewed Muslims as enemies who turned the "sepoy mutiny" into a "political conspiracy"
• Muslims were denied civil and military service jobs
• The imposition of English and Western education worsened their conditions
• There was no leader to guide the Muslims after the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan emerged and took charge

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh Movement

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on October 17, 1817, and died on March 27, 1898
• He looked for his future in judiciary during the East India Company's rule
• He saved an English collector and his family from an angry mob
• He tried to solve the problems Muslims faced, especially post-war

Aftermath of the War of Independence

• After the War of Independence, which started in May 1857 and ended in August 1858, the British East Subcontinent Company was dissolved
• The British government took over Subcontinent affairs under Queen Victoria's authority
• On November 1, 1858, the queen officially declared the takeover
• The people of the Subcontinent were given the status of British subjects

Contributions and Services of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

• After the war, Sir Syed planned to uplift Muslims through education and closer ties with the British
• He wrote books and opened schools
• Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind: Originally written in Urdu, translated into English in 1873, blamed the British for the Subcontinent Revolt due to their tyrannical rule
• Loyal Mohammedans of India: Mentioned Muslims who served under the British to show Muslims were not enemies
• Ahleam-e-Taam-e-Ahle-e-Kitab: Discussed similarities between Muslims and Christians
• Khutabt-e-Ahmadiah: Discussed events and summons related to Prophet Muhammad P.B.U.H

Educational Initiatives

• Laid the foundation of a school in Moradabad in 1859
• Established a school in Ghazipur in 1864
• Established a scientific society at Ghazipur in 1863 to translate European books into local languages
• In 1869, he went to England, observed the education system, and worked to establish a university in the Subcontinent
• In 1875, he established a school at Aligarh, which became MAO College in 1877
• This later became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920

Other Educational Efforts

• Established the Mohammedan Educational Conference in 1886 to promote education among Muslims of the Sub-continent

Aligarh Movement

• It was not a separate movement by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, but encompassed all his educational efforts based in Aligarh, including Tehzeb-ul-Akhlaq, MAO College, etc.

Political Advice to Muslims

• Sir Syed advised Muslims to show loyalty to the British, gain modern education, and stay away from politics
• He believed Muslims were not ready for politics and needed education first, unlike the Hindus

Hindi-Urdu Controversy 1867

• The British decided to replace Urdu (Persian script) with Hindi (Deo-Nagri script) in lower courts
• Muslims protested, while Hindus celebrated
• Sir Syed saw this and began thinking about the two-nation theory, that Muslims and Hindus are two different nations with different history, culture, religion, and language

Two-Nation Theory

• Sir Syed was the first to distinguish the two major communities of the subcontinent on political and religious grounds
• The Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867 led him to think about the two-nation theory

Formation of "All Indian National Congress" 1885

• Formed by Allan Octavian Hume in 1885 to provide Indians a platform to voice grievances to the British government
• It welcomed people of all castes and colors
• The British wanted to avoid another War of Independence like 1857
• The first meeting was held in Bombay with 72 delegates and Womesh Chandra Banerjee as president
• By 1907, the Congress split into extremist (Bal Gangadhar Tilak) and moderate (Gopal Krishna Ghokle) sections

Sir Syed's Advice on Congress

• Sir Syed advised Muslims not to join Congress, as he believed they were not ready for politics and had other priorities
• He said Hindus were more advanced and would overpower Muslims in politics
• He predicted Congress would become a Hindu party neglecting Muslims
• To provide Muslims a platform for education and divert them from politics, he established the Mohammedan Education Conference in 1886

Indian Councils Act 1892

• Since its establishment, the Congress asked for more representation in the legislature and elections by Indians
• In 1892, the British introduced reforms, bringing limited democratic representation to India
• Members would be nominated by groups working in India, such as City Corporations, Municipal Corporations, district boards, associations of merchants, manufacturers, and University senates
• The Act introduced elections for the first time, allowing people to choose representatives in viceroy's councils

Councils

• In 1892, the executive council had five British members, and the imperial council had official and non-official members

Sir Syed on the Democratic System

• He said the European democratic system could not work in India due to different communities; the majority would suppress minorities

Before 1892

• Sir Syed was a nominated member of the imperial council, nominated by Lord Lytton and Lord Rippon

Partition of Bengal 1905

• Lord Curzon became the viceroy of India in 1899
• Decided to divide Punjab and Bengal for effective management
• In 1901, he divided Punjab and NWFP became a new province
• Bengal was divided into East Bengal (Dhaka capital) and West Bengal (Calcutta capital)
• The partition took effect on October 16, 1905
• Muslims gained a majority in the new province of East Bengal

Reactions to Partition

• Hindus reacted against the partition, as they did not want to share power with Muslims
• Muslims felt relieved
• Before the partition Hindus had majority, so when muslims got majority in one province, it was not acceptable to Hindus

Reasons for the Partition

• Bengal had a large population and area, making it difficult to administer
• The Viceroy decided to divide it into two smaller provinces under two Governors

Hindu and Muslim Views on Partition

• Before the partition, Hindus were the majority in Bengal, mostly in the western part
• Muslims were the second largest population, mostly in the eastern part
• After the partition, East Bengal was mostly Muslim, and West Bengal was still dominated by Hindus
• Congress and Hindus could not tolerate Muslim majority in any province
• Hindus claimed that dividing the holy land that it was like cutting holy deity in two halves

Hindu and Congress Opposition

• Congress and Hindus opposed the decision from the start and wanted to reverse it

Swadeshi Movement

• "Swadeshi" means "of our own"
• Congress asked people to boycott British goods and buy Indian goods to cause financial losses and force the British to reverse the partition

Violence

• Initially, the British sustained pressure from agitation and the Swadeshi Movement
• Eventually, Hindus became frustrated and violent
• Extremist Hindus attacked government officials and attempted to assassinate the Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, twice, but he survived

Delhi Durbar

• King George V became the king of England, and his coronation took place in India
• He reversed the partition of Bengal and shifted the capital of India to Delhi

The Simla Deputation, 1906

• The Simla Deputation called on Viceroy Lord Minto on October 1, 1906 and was led by Sir Aga Khan III
• Mohsinul Mulk asked A.J. Archbold to ask Lord Minto to receive a delegation of Muslims
• Mohsinul Mulk was the successor of Sir Syed
• The memorial was drafted by Nawab Imadul Mulk and signed by 1,461,183 Muslims
• Lord Minto was sympathetic but did not commit to any step and said he would convey the demands to the House of Commons
• Separate electorates were granted to Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms

Demands of Simla Deputation

• Employment of Muslims: Muslims should be employed in civil administration, the military, and the Judiciary in sufficient numbers
• Representation in Universities: There should be preservation of seats for Muslims in the municipal and district boards and in the university senate and syndicate
• Separate Election and Weightage: Muslims should have separate elections to the Provincial council based on their political importance and not on the population ratio
• Imperial Legislative council: There should be the election of Muslims

Other Demands, Sympathy, and Effects

• Muslims sought a Muslim University to promote their religious and cultural life
• The Viceroy was sympathetic and encouraged Muslims to launch a struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian National Congress, but it required an organized platform

The Formation of the Muslim League 1906

• The annual session of the “Mohammedan Educational Conference” was held in Dhaka in 1906
• After the meeting, the Nawab of Dhaka, Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk, arranged a meeting to discuss a political party for Muslims
• Everyone agreed to form a separate political party, and Sir Aga Khan became the first president of AIML (All-India Muslim League)

Objectives of the League

• To protect the rights of Muslims
• To cultivate friendly relations with the British
• To prevent hostile feelings in the hearts of Muslims for other communities and in the hearts of other communities for Muslims

Morley Minto Reforms 1909

• British introduced legislative reforms after 1892 in 1909, known as Indian Councils Act 1909 or Morley Minto Reforms
• Lord Minto was Viceroy, and Lord Morley was the Secretary of State for India

Salient Features of these Reforms

• Separate electorates were granted to Muslims
• The central council was increased to 60 members; 33 official and 27 elected
• The executive council nominated one Indian in executive council by the viceroy, S.P Sinha, the first elected

Reactions

• Congress opposed these reforms because they did not grant self-rule to Indians and gave separate electorates to Muslims

Change of Objectives by Muslim League

• After the reversal of the partition of Bengal in 1911 during the Delhi Darbar, the Muslim League changed its objectives
• Friendly relations with the British were replaced with a demand for self-rule, bringing the Muslim League and Congress closer
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the Muslim League in 1913

Lucknow Pact 1916

• In 1913, Jinnah joined the Muslim League
• He aimed to bring the Congress and Muslim League together and was successful at it
• Sarojini Naidu Gave Jinnah the title, The Ambassador of Hindu –Muslim unity

Main Clauses

• The Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims
• No bill would pass in any provincial assembly if ¾ of the community concerned with that law agreed to it
• Muslims were given 1/3 of the seats in the councils where their ratio was ¼
• A system of weightage should be adopted
• The number of members of the Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150
• Both political parties demanded the right of Adjournment Motion
• No bill about a community should pass if opposed by 3/4 of the community
• Half of the members of the Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians
• Indian Council must be abolished, and two Under Secretaries should be elected for the help of the Secretary of State
• The Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid by the British Government

Montague Chelmsford Reforms or Act of India 1919

• After World War I, the British brought a new constitution purporting to give more power to the locals
• The Central Legislature was divided into two houses: the Council of State and the Indian Legislative Assembly

New Composition of various legislative houses

• Council of State (33 Elected, 27 Nominated, 5 years Term, 60 Total)
• Legislative Assembly (104 Elected(30 Muslims), 41 Nominated, 3 years Term, 145 Total)

Key Recommendations

• Accepted the 1916 recommendations concerning laws that affect a particular community
• Any law affecting a community would not pass if 3/4 of the members of that community opposed it
• A new system of diarchy was introduced: a dual rule dividing the administration of provinces between Chief Minister and Governor

Diarchy

• Chief Ministers were elected, and the Governors were selected and appointed by the Viceroy
• the administration was divided into the Reserved Subjects, and Transferred Subjects
• The Reserved Subjects were given to Governors
• Transferred Subjects, related to the collection of taxes, were retained by British
• Reserved Subjects (Governor) included Finance Maintenance of peace and order and Irrigation
• Transferred Subjects (C.M) included Health, education Local government. and Agriculture

More Facts

• Separate electorates were retained for Muslims and extended to new communities: Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians, and the Europeans

Reaction of Muslim League and Congress on these reforms

• Both refused to accept these reforms because the majority of the demands were not accepted
• The system of diarchy was criticized
• Both knew the British had introduced diarchy to retain financial powers

Rowlett Act

• On February 6, 1919, a bill was introduced in the Imperial Legislative Council for approval
• It sparked from Muslims and Hindus
• Police could arrest anyone without warrant or reason and people could not seek a lawyer
• “Na daleel na wakeel"
• Jinnah resigned from the legislative council

Jallianwala Bagh Incident

• On April 13, 1919, people gathered to celebrate a local festival
• General Dyer ordered people to leave, or he would shoot
• Dyer ordered his forces to shoot at people
• Around 400 people died, and 1600 were injured

The Khilafat Movement

• It was a religio-political movement to retain the Ottoman Caliphate and prevent control of Muslim holy places by non-Muslims
• Maulana Mohamed Ali tried to explain that it was truly an Islamic question, an Indian question, an Algerian question, and a Tunisian question
• Muslims joined hands with Hindus, Congress, and emerging leader Gandhi
• Gandhi wanted Muslim support to present himself as an all-India leader and fight the British for Swaraj/freedom

Impact

• The Khilafat-non-cooperation movement gained support
• a fatwa declared India to be a Dar-al-Harb (Abode of War)

Hijrat Movement 1920-21

• Indian ulama declared India 'Darul Harab, and Muslims should migrate
• The Muslims went to Darul Islam, Afghanistan, and the King of Afghanistan closed the border, leaving many dead

End of Movement

• Moplah's revolted against Hindu landlords in August 1921, which embittered Hindu-Muslim relations
• Congress volunteers set a police station on fire in the Chouri Choura Incident
• Attaturk restricted powers of Sultan
• the Attaturk was then appointed Chief of the state by Grand National Assembly
• Khilafat was abolished in March 1924

Simon Commission (1927)

• Lord Birkenhead announced to work for the recommendations for the new constitution of India, (replace Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919)
• He stated that Indians are not capable of legislation
• It was not accepted by almost all Indian political parties
• The Muslim league welcomed it
• Jinnah was against it
• The report was rejected by all political parties of India

Simon Commission report 1930

• The British government sent a commission to seek the opinion of Indians
• It was boycotted
• It was about: A federal system of government with strong center two houses abolition of Diarchy system in provinces and more powers to provincial governments

Delhi Muslim Proposals March 1927

• Called a meeting with following proposals drafted March 20, 1927: Sindh should be separated from Bombay and made a province; Reforms should be introduced in N.W.F.P and Baluchistan Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in central legislature

All Parties Conference and Nehru Report: 1928

• Congress being the largest political party of India invited all other political parties to talk to come together
• proposed by Motilal Nehru
• It was not acceptable to Muslims

Recommendations that threatened Muslim interests are

• No Separate electorate no One-third seats for Muslims in Central Assembly; and No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal

Key Quote and Aim

• After remarking, "It is parting of the ways
• Goal was that BBaluchistan, NWFP were accepted to be given constitutional status

Congress demand of full independence

• In 1929 Jawaharlal Nehru demanded (Purna Swaraj) complete independence of India and complete withdrawal of British from India on 26th January

Roundtable Conferences: 1930, 1931, and 1932

• In the first session, a number of prominent Muslims like M. A. Jinnah, Begum Jahan Ara Shahnawaz, Maulana M. A. Jauhar, Zafarullah Khan
• In the second conference, Iqbal, Jinnah and others
• The key issues was Federation" and Minorities
• The Communal Award, August 1932 was when that right of separate electorate granted to the untouchables

Poona Pact, 1932

• The Congress expressed strong reaction against the right of separate electorate to the Indian minorities, especially to low caste Hindus
• Aagreement with