General Study Notes Request

<p>Prolonged exposure to damaging insults. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased synthesis of muscle proteins and myofilaments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increase in the number of cells in response to stress. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hypertrophy due to increased workload with no new cell formation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Crystallins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They result in a shorter half-life for the proteins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They contain more than 40 oxidative enzymes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are non-living and lack metabolic activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Catabolize long-chained fatty acids. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Generalized cellular swelling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Blebbing of the plasma membrane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Toxic injury in the liver (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Fatty change (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Failure of the Na+-K+ ATPase pump (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mitochondrial damage leading to ATP depletion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Columnar cell metaplasia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Promotion of squamous metaplasia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Persistent ATP depletion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It remains tightly coiled. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells lining the internal surface of the cheek. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>rRNA and proteins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Synthesis of ribosomal subunits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G1 phase. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A fluid portion, a proteinaceous matrix, and various ribonucleoprotein particles. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G2 phase. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A drumstick-like appendage. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA synthesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Heterochromatin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Colchicine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Multiple codons can encode the same amino acid. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To carry amino acids to the ribosome matching with codons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AUG is the only start codon and it codes for Methionine. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>5’ to 3’ direction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ribosomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It establishes the relationship between mRNA codons and amino acids. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A specific type of tRNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Messenger RNA (mRNA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Alkaloids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>High nutrient intake (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Leakage of lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Discontinuities in plasma and organelle membranes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Create an impermeable barrier between cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phagocytosis of necrotic debris (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Desmin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Karyolysis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They form broad areas of contact between cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased eosinophilia from denatured proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They have a distinct role in maintaining the shape of neurons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glial fibrillary acidic proteins (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells without causing inflammation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Apoptosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Remodeling of tissues by eliminating interdigital cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Deprivation of survival signals or presence of pro-apoptotic signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caspases initiate and execute the apoptotic process. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Degeneration of muscle fibers in a sedentary lifestyle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Virus-infected cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Necrotic cells and cellular debris fostering mineral accumulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The N-terminal residue (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It triggers apoptosis in cells that fail to repair DNA damage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Serine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Alzheimer's disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are non-living and do not possess metabolic activity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Poly-ubiquination (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hydrogen peroxide (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>11 minutes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glycogen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They undergo fission to form new peroxisomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mechanical force or tissue injury (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They regulate normal cell proliferation and differentiation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They lead to uncontrolled cell division. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chromosomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They contain 46 chromosomes representing 23 homologous pairs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA sequence mutations or gene amplification (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prophase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in tumor suppressor genes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To activate growth factor release (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Loss of cytoplasmic RNA and denatured proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mitochondrial membranes have marked dilations and large amorphous densities (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Karyolysis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Moth-eaten and vacuolated structure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Digesting cellular components leading to cell death (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ischemia due to loss of oxygen supply (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Coagulative necrosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Leakage of intracellular proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Myocardial infarction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Liquefactive necrosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA fragmentation and membrane blebbing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bile duct cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Distinct cellular outlines with eosinophilia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It results from enzyme activity that breaks down fat tissue. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caseous necrosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Synergism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The drug is not safe. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To predict individual responses to a drug. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The dose that causes a specific therapeutic response in half the population. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Synergism results in a curve of higher efficacy than each drug individually. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Pro-apoptotic signals from other cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It eliminates damaged cells without triggering a host response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Involution of primordial structures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To execute the cell death program (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dystrophic calcification (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Virus-infected cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA damage without repair (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Withdrawal of estrogen and progesterone (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Control of potentially dangerous cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It limits collateral tissue damage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Control cell proliferation and differentiation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations, gene amplification, and rearrangement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mechanical force, injury, and cell death (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gametes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Through condensation and coiling of chromatin fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Two sister chromatids joined at the centromere (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>M phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are diploid with 46 chromosomes from both parents (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Development of tumors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Successful tissue healing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Reversible changes in cell size, number, or function in response to environmental changes.

Increase in cell size, leading to increased organ size.

Increase in cell number, leading to increased organ size.

Non-dividing cells like myocardial fibers respond to stress only via hypertrophy, not hyperplasia

Hypertrophy due to increased functional demand.

Hypertrophy due to hormones or growth factors.

A sequence of events triggered when adaptive responses are exceeded or cells are damaged.

A tightly coiled and visible X chromosome found in females. It is genetically inactive.

Males, having only one X chromosome, do not have sex chromatin because the X chromosome is uncoiled and not visible.

A spherical structure within the nucleus rich in rRNA and protein. It is the site of ribosome subunit synthesis.

Ribosomal RNA, produced in the nucleolus, is a component of ribosomes.

The fluid portion of the nucleus containing proteins and various ribonucleoproteins.

A series of events that prepares a cell for division into two daughter cells.

The longest phase of the cell cycle where cell growth, macromolecule synthesis, and DNA replication occur. It includes G1, S, and G2 phases.

The first stage of interphase where the cell grows and synthesizes macromolecules needed for DNA replication.

The stage of interphase where DNA replication occurs.

The stage of interphase where the cell prepares for mitosis.

A reversible change in cell type, where one type of cell is replaced by another, often due to chronic irritation or stress.

Replacement of normal epithelium by stratified squamous epithelium, usually in response to chronic irritation or lack of vitamin A.

Replacement of normal epithelium by columnar epithelium, often in the esophagus due to exposure to acid reflux.

Chronic irritation, such as smoking, stones in the gallbladder, or a lack of vitamin A.

Chronic irritation, such as acid reflux in the esophagus.

Cell damage that can be repaired if the damaging stimulus is removed.

Cell swelling caused by water accumulation, often due to ATP depletion and sodium pump failure.

Accumulation of fat within cells, usually in organs involved in lipid metabolism like the liver, due to metabolic disruptions.

ATP depletion disrupts the sodium-potassium pump, leading to an influx of sodium ions and water into the cell, causing swelling.

The time it takes for half of a protein to be broken down or degraded in a cell.

A rule that determines how quickly a protein is broken down based on the amino acid at its N-terminus (the beginning).

Short amino acid sequences within a protein that signal for rapid degradation.

A process where a small protein called ubiquitin attaches to a target protein, marking it for breakdown by proteasomes.

Small organelles responsible for breaking down long-chain fatty acids and producing hydrogen peroxide.

The process of converting the genetic information in mRNA (codons) into the amino acid sequence of a protein, ultimately leading to protein synthesis.

Sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA that specify a particular amino acid during protein synthesis.

mRNA (messenger RNA): carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis. tRNA (transfer RNA): acts as an adapter molecule, bringing specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA codons. rRNA (ribosomal RNA): forms part of the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis.

The set of rules that defines how a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or mRNA corresponds to a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

The first codon in an mRNA sequence that signals the start of protein synthesis (AUG).

One of three codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) that signal the end of protein synthesis.

More than one codon can specify the same amino acid.

Errors in translation can lead to incorrect protein production, impacting cell function and contributing to disease development.

Changes made to a protein after its synthesis, like folding, adding chemical groups, or cutting it into smaller pieces.

By targeting cells in specific stages of the cell cycle, chemotherapy drugs can selectively destroy cancer cells.

A form of cell death characterized by irreversible damage and cell lysis, leading to the release of cellular contents into the surrounding environment. It is usually triggered by external factors like injury or toxins.

Necrosis can be caused by factors such as oxygen deprivation (ischemia), exposure to toxins, microbial infections, burns, trauma, and various forms of chemical or physical injury.

Damage to mitochondria, a cell's powerhouses, leads to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which damage cell membranes and DNA. This ultimately depletes ATP (energy) and disrupts cellular function.

Necrotic cells exhibit distinctive changes like increased eosinophilia (pink staining), a glassy appearance, and the presence of myelin figures. These changes are associated with cell membrane damage, protein denaturation and organelle breakdown.

Necrotic cell nuclei undergo characteristic changes like karyolysis (fading of chromatin), pyknosis (nuclear shrinkage), and karyorrhexis (fragmentation of the nucleus). These changes reflect DNA degradation and eventual nuclear dissolution.

Damage to the plasma membrane in necrotic cells leads to the leakage of cellular contents into the extracellular space. This triggers a host reaction, involving inflammatory cells like macrophages, which engulf and clear the debris.

Damaged cells release damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), such as ATP and uric acid. These molecules are recognized by immune cells, leading to phagocytosis and the production of inflammatory cytokines.

The deposition of calcium salts and other minerals in necrotic cells and debris, leading to hardening.

Programmed cell death where cells activate internal enzymes to break down their own DNA and proteins.

Enzymes that play a crucial role in apoptosis. They activate a cascade of reactions leading to cell death.

Apoptosis occurring as part of normal biological processes, like development and tissue turnover.

Apoptosis occurring in response to injuries or diseases, aiming to eliminate damaged cells.

Apoptosis plays a key role in the development of embryos, removing unnecessary cells and shaping organs.

Apoptosis is essential in tissues influenced by hormones, like the menstrual cycle or breast regression after weaning.

Apoptosis eliminates cells that are infected with viruses or have damaged DNA, protecting the organism.

Apoptosis removes T cells that wrongly attack the body's own tissues, preventing autoimmune disorders.

Small organelles involved in breaking down long-chain fatty acids and producing hydrogen peroxide.

Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide.

Non-living components of a cell that lack metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes.

The most common storage form of glucose in humans, found in muscle and liver cells.

The most common types of inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, pigments, and crystals.

Failure to degrade misfolded proteins can lead to their accumulation and contribute to diseases like Alzheimer's and Mad Cow disease.

The process by which a cell slows down its progression through the cell cycle, often due to activation of inhibitory pathways or suppression of activating pathways.

Events that initiate the cell cycle, such as mechanical force, tissue injury, or cell death, often by releasing growth factors.

Signaling molecules that stimulate cell growth and division.

Genes that regulate normal cell growth and division.

Mutated proto-oncogenes that contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer development.

Highly condensed chromatin fibers visible under a microscope, carrying duplicated DNA during these cell division processes.

Two identical copies of a chromosome joined at the centromere, formed during DNA replication.

The constricted region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are attached.

Body cells produced by mitosis, containing 46 chromosomes representing 23 homologous pairs.

Pairs of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent, which carry genes for the same traits.

Rope-like structures made of protein tetramers, forming long helical arrays. They provide structural support and help maintain cell shape.

Different types of intermediate filaments exist, each with specific functions. Common examples include keratins for epithelial cells, desmin for muscle cells, and neurofilaments for neurons.

Specialized attachment areas between cells, enabling communication and structural support.

Three main types are zonula (belt-like), fascia (sheet-like), and macula (disc-like). Each type has a specific structure and role in connecting cells.

Cell junctions play vital roles in maintaining tissue integrity, controlling permeability, and enabling intercellular communication.

A type of necrosis where the dead tissue retains its structure for days, usually due to lack of blood supply (ischemia).

A type of necrosis characterized by the breakdown of dead tissue into a liquid, often seen in infections and brain injuries.

A type of necrosis that looks like 'cheese' - crumbly and white - often seen in tuberculosis infections.

A type of necrosis that involves large areas of tissue death, usually due to lack of blood flow (ischemia) often affecting limbs.

A type of necrosis specifically affecting fat tissue, often caused by pancreatitis or traumatic injury.

A type of necrosis affecting blood vessels, characterized by a 'fibrinoid' appearance (fibrin-like material deposition).

Necrosis causes leakage of intracellular proteins into the circulation. This allows for early detection of cell injury through blood tests.

Early biochemical tests can detect cell death before visible changes appear, aiding in diagnosis and management of conditions.

Mutated proto-oncogenes that contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer development.

Efficacy measures how well a drug produces its desired effect, regardless of the dose. Potency refers to the amount of drug needed to achieve a certain effect. They are distinct concepts.

When two drugs work together to produce a greater effect than either drug alone. The combined effect is more efficacious than each drug alone.

When one drug increases the effect of another drug. The combined effect is more potent than the first drug alone.

A measure of a drug's safety. It is calculated by dividing the median toxic dose (TD50) by the median effective dose (ED50). A higher TI indicates a safer drug.

A graph that plots the proportion of a population that responds to a drug at different doses. It shows how effective a drug is at different doses and how many people experience side effects.