N715 Exam 3 New Pt 4

Processes maintaining physiological balance, using substances released into the bloodstream.

Hormone release into the bloodstream, unlike local signals.

Hormones that are fat-soluble, easily cross cell membranes, and are carried by proteins in circulation.

Group of diseases with high blood sugar and insulin problems (resistance or deficiency).

Pancreatic hormone that raises blood sugar by stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose production.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) is primarily associated with Type 1 Diabetes (T1DM), but it can occur in Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM) under certain circumstances.

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS) is a severe complication of diabetes characterized by extremely high blood sugar, dehydration, and altered mental state.

The thyroid gland plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism by producing hormones that influence various bodily functions.

Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid, characterized by reduced hormone production, leading to slowed metabolism and various symptoms.

Hyperthyroidism is an overactive thyroid, characterized by excess hormone release, accelerating metabolism and causing various symptoms.

Graves' Disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism, an autoimmune condition where the body attacks the thyroid gland.

Thyroxine (T4) is the inactive form of thyroid hormone, largely converted to Triiodothyronine (T3), the active form that regulates metabolism.

The thyroid gland consists of spherical structures called thyroid follicles, containing thyrocytes surrounding colloid.

Iodine uptake and transfer are essential for thyroid hormone production. Thyrocytes concentrate iodine from the bloodstream and transport it to the follicular lumen.

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) axis regulates thyroid hormone production and release through a series of hormonal signals.

A decrease in TSH due to a pituitary disorder, leading to lower T3 and T4 levels. This can result from pituitary gland tumors or their treatment, or conditions like TBI or subarachnoid hemorrhage, metabolic disorders (insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, obesity, endothelial dysfunction).

Reduced TRH due to hypothalamic dysfunction, ultimately causing decreased TSH, T3, and T4.

A life-threatening medical emergency characterized by decreased level of consciousness, hypothermia without shivering, hypoventilation, hypoglycemia, and lactic acidosis.

A characteristic feature of Graves' disease where the eyes protrude due to inflammation and swelling of the tissues behind the eyes.

Immune responses that are harmful to the body, categorized into four types. Type II reactions are antibody-mediated, affecting specific tissues.

Antibodies produced in Graves' disease that bind to TSH receptors on the thyroid gland, mimicking the action of TSH and leading to hyperthyroidism.

A rare but severe complication of hyperthyroidism, characterized by a sudden spike in thyroid hormones, potentially leading to high fever, rapid heartbeat, and even death.

A condition where the adrenal glands produce excess hormones, leading to various symptoms like weight gain, high blood pressure, and mood swings.

A chronic condition characterized by insulin resistance and progressive decline in insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells, leading to high blood sugar.

A state where the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin, preventing glucose from entering cells for energy.

Decreased ability of pancreatic beta cells to produce and release insulin, contributing to the development of Type 2 Diabetes.

Hormones released by fat cells that can contribute to inflammation, insulin resistance, and beta cell dysfunction.

Impaired function of mitochondria, the energy-producing organelles in cells, linked to insulin resistance in Type 2 Diabetes.

High blood sugar levels, a defining feature of Type 2 Diabetes, caused by insulin resistance and insufficient insulin secretion.

Increased release of glucagon, a hormone that raises blood sugar, contributing to hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes.

Cells in the pancreas that produce glucagon, which is elevated in Type 2 Diabetes.

A condition caused by long-term exposure to high levels of cortisol, often due to overproduction by the adrenal glands.

A chronic condition that occurs when the adrenal glands cannot produce enough hormones, primarily cortisol and/or aldosterone.

The outer layer of the adrenal cortex that primarily produces the mineral corticosteroid aldosterone, responsible for regulating blood pressure.

The middle layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for secreting glucocorticoids like cortisol.

The inner layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for secreting a combination of mineralocorticoids, androgens, and glucocorticoids.

Hormones like epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, released from the adrenal medulla under stress, responsible for the 'fight or flight' response.

Hormones like cortisol, secreted by the adrenal cortex, responsible for regulating blood glucose levels, suppressing the immune system, and mediating stress response.

Cortisol levels are primarily controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The hypothalamus releases CRH, stimulating the pituitary to release ACTH, which then prompts the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.

High levels of cortisol in the bloodstream suppress the production of CRH and ACTH, creating a negative feedback loop that helps maintain normal cortisol levels.

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that helps conserve sodium and regulate blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption in the kidneys.

Aldosterone production is primarily regulated by the renin-angiotensin system (RAAS) and also influenced by sodium and potassium levels.

Addison's disease is the most common form of primary hypoadrenalism, characterized by adrenal gland damage that leads to low cortisol and aldosterone production.

Secondary hypoadrenalism occurs when the pituitary gland doesn't produce enough ACTH, leading to low cortisol production.

Tertiary hypoadrenalism happens when the hypothalamus doesn't release enough CRH, resulting in lower levels of ACTH and cortisol.

Addison's disease is caused by low corticosteroid and mineralocorticoid levels, along with elevated ACTH due to disrupted feedback mechanisms.

Increased blood sugar levels due to cortisol's effect on glucose metabolism. Cortisol promotes glucose production in the liver and reduces glucose uptake by cells.

Insulin resistance in Type 2 Diabetes results from a reduction in the number or sensitivity of insulin receptors on cells. This means the body produces insulin, but cells don't respond properly.

A life-threatening condition that occurs when the body doesn't produce enough cortisol. Can be triggered by stress in people on long-term steroid medications.

A cycle where a process's output stimulates further production of that output. Example: during labor, uterine contractions stimulate oxytocin release, which further strengthens contractions.

A regulatory mechanism where a process's output inhibits further production of that output. Example: Increased calcium levels suppress parathyroid hormone (PTH) release.

A problem with the target endocrine gland itself. Example: Graves' disease, where the thyroid gland is overactive.

A problem with the pituitary gland, which fails to release the required trophic hormone. This affects the target gland's function.

Intracellular signaling molecules that relay a signal from a hormone (first messenger) to the target cell's internal components. Example: cAMP, IP3.

Insulin acts like a key to unlock cells, allowing glucose to enter and be used for energy. In Type 2 Diabetes, cells become resistant to insulin, like having the wrong key for the lock.

Type 1 Diabetes (T1DM) is characterized by a complete lack of insulin production, like having NO key to unlock the cell for glucose entry. Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM) involves insulin resistance, like having the wrong key that doesn't fit properly.

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS) occurs when blood sugar levels are extremely high, but there's still some insulin present. This leads to dehydration, altered mental state, and metabolic acidosis.

HHS is characterized by high blood sugar, dehydration, and some insulin. DKA, on the other hand, involves lower blood sugar, ketones, and fat breakdown leading to acidity.

SGLT2 inhibitors work by driving sugar out of the body before it enters the bloodstream. These medications are primarily helpful for Type 2 Diabetes by reducing blood sugar.

GLP1 agonists help insulin work better by mimicking a hormone that promotes insulin release and reduces glucagon secretion.

Graves' disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism, involves an autoimmune attack on the thyroid gland. This results in excessive thyroid hormone production.

Thyroid testing measures levels of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and TSH. Abnormal levels can reveal an underactive (hypothyroidism) or overactive (hyperthyroidism) thyroid.

The process where normal cells become cancerous due to genetic alterations and changes in cell function.

The development of a tumor as cancerous cells multiply and spread, forming a mass of abnormal tissue.

Cancer cells have distinct features like uncontrolled growth, lack of differentiation, and the ability to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize.

Factors that can increase the chance of developing cancer, including genetics, lifestyle, environmental exposure, and some infections.

The study of how environment and lifestyle can influence gene expression, contributing to cancer development.

A tightly regulated process where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells, ensuring genetic continuity and proper function.

Critical control points in the cell cycle, ensuring proper DNA replication and repair before progressing to further division.

Damaged DNA, errors in replication, or inappropriate signals can trigger cell cycle checkpoints, halting division to repair or eliminate the problem.