General Anatomy and Embryology

• The text contains a series of lecture notes
• It covers general anatomy and embryology

Introduction to Anatomy

• Anatomy is the study of the normal structure of organs in living beings through dissection.
• Macroscopic anatomy (gross anatomy) involves studying the structure of organs visible to the naked eye.
• Microscopic anatomy (histology) is the study of normal structure of cells using a microscope.
• Developmental anatomy focuses on the study of intrauterine life.
• Applied anatomy involves applying anatomical facts in medicine and surgery.
• Surface anatomy deals with identifying borders of organs on the skin surface.
• Radiographic anatomy uses imaging techniques like CT scans, MRI, and X-rays to study anatomy.

Anatomical Position and Planes

• Anatomical position involves a human standing erect with face and eyes looking forward, arms hanging beside the trunk, and palms facing forward.
• The sagittal plane is a vertical plane dividing the body into right and left parts, and if it divides it into two equal halves, it is called the median plane.
• The coronal plane is a vertical plane dividing the body into front and back parts.
• The transverse plane is a horizontal plane dividing the body into upper and lower parts.

Anatomical Terms

• Anterior refers to being in front.
• Posterior refers to being behind.
• Superior refers to being above.
• Inferior refers to being below.
• Medial refers to being closer to the median plane.
• Lateral refers to being away from the median plane.
• Cranial means nearer to the head.
• Caudal means nearer to the tail.
• Proximal means nearer to the trunk.
• Distal means away from the trunk.
• Ventral means nearer to the anterior abdominal wall.
• Dorsal means nearer to the backbone.

Terms of Movements

• Flexion involves bending.
• Extension involves straightening.
• Abduction involves movement away from the median plane.
• Adduction involves movement towards the median plane.
• Circumduction involves multi-axial movement in a sequence including flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.
• Protraction (protrusion) involves movement forward.
• Retraction (retrusion) involves movement backward.
• Dorsiflexion of the foot involves movement to make toes approximate the front of the leg.
• Plantarflexion of the foot is the reverse of dorsiflexion.
• Rotation involves turning movement around a single axis.
  • Supination involves the palm of the hand facing forward.
  • Pronation involves the palm of the hand facing backward.
  • Inversion involves the sole of the foot facing inward.
  • Eversion involves the sole of the foot facing outward.

Body Cavities

• The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and heart.
• Abdominal and pelvic cavities contain abdominal and pelvic viscera, and these cavities are lined by serous membranes.
• The cranial cavity contains the brain.
• The vertebral canal contains the spinal cord, and these cavities are lined by meninges.

Skin & Fascia

• The skin forms the external surface of the body and consists of two layers: epidermis and dermis
  • Epidermis: superficial epithelial layer.
  • Dermis: a deeper connective tissue layer.
• The skin has four appendages developed from the ectoderm: hairs, nails, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.
• The skin protects underlying soft tissues from mechanical, osmotic, and thermal damage, acts as a barrier against microorganisms, regulates heat exchange, and is sensory for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.
• The skin absorbs substances (drugs and toxins) and activates vitamin D through ultraviolet rays.

Epidermis

• The epidermis is formed of stratified squamous epithelium and is keratinized.
• It consists of five layers: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale.
  • Stratum corneum: non-nucleated cells filled with keratin
  • Stratum lucidum: found in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, composed of non-nucleated clear cells.
  • Stratum granulosum: contains granular cytoplasm.
  • Stratum spinosum: contains polyhedral cells connected by desmosomes.
  • Stratum basale: a proliferating layer on the basement membrane that gives rise to all epidermis.

Dermis

• Composed of connective tissue, contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, sweat glands, & sebaceous glands.
• Flexure lines of skin (skin creases) are linear skin furrows that lie opposite joints especially in the palm of hand and wrist joint caused by attachment to underlying deep fascia.
• Papillary ridges (fingerprints) are narrow, slightly raised ridges separated by fine parallel furrows to help perfect hand grip, located in the palm of hands, sole of feet, tips of fingers & toes, specific to the individuals medicolegal contexts.
• The epidermis is avascular providing nourishment from the vascular dermis.
• Nerve Supply
  • Sensory receptors for touch, temperature, & pain.
  • Autonomic sympathetic fibers provide sweat glands, sebaceous glands, & arrector pilorum muscles

Superficial Fascia

• A layer of loose areolar connective or adipose tissue that connects skin to the underlying bones or deep fascia.
• It is well-developed in the trunk wall, abdominal wall, buttocks, & face, but absent in ear pinna, eye lids, penis, & scrotum; and condensed in scalp, palm of hand, & sole of foot with functions inclucing skin movement as well as, being a soft bed for blood vessels & nerves, retains warmth and contours the body

Deep Fascia

• Dense connective tissue arranged in sheets forming a stocking around muscles and tendons beneath the superficial fascia with absences face, scalp, & anterior abdominal wall
  • Functions: it invests delicate structures: glands & blood vessels for fixation, it is thickened at the palm of hands (Palmar aponeurosis) in the palm & sole of feet (Planter aponeurosis) to protect vessels and nerves, venous return from lower limbs contracts the skeletal muscules to squeeze veins.

Bone Tissue and Functions

• Bones are hard forms of connective tissues make up 18% of body weight with 206 of them in the body.
• Osteocytes are mature bone cells with Osteoblasts are young bone cells, and Osteoclasts include phagocytic cells for bone remodeling.
• The matrix of bone tissue is 30% organic collagen bundles and 70% inorganic salts (calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate).
• Bones give the body shape, form joints for locomotion, protect vital organs, contain bone marrow, and store calcium & phosphorus.

Types of Bones

• Histological classification: two types
  • • Compact bone: contains tiny spaces with no bone marrow e.g., shaft of long bones.
  • Spongy bone: a matrix with large marrow spaces e.g., ends of long bones.
• Developmental classification: two types
  • Intra-membranous ossification: young bone cells in membrane-like structures (flat bones).
  • Intra-cartilaginous ossification: young bone cells developed from cartilaginous model (long bones).
• Morphological classification: Bone are classified into Long, Short, Flat, Irregular, Sesamoid, Pneumatic bones.

Long Bones and Blood Supply

• The presence of long bones are within the limbs formed and are developed by intra-cartilaginous ossification with a primary center ossification in the shaft (diaphysis) of the bone for the 8th : 12th week of intrauterine life.
• Secondary ossification centers appear at the ends (epiphysis) of bone at birth.
• An epiphyseal cartilage plate persists at the junction between epiphysis & diaphysis for bone growth until 19th-25th years of age.

Blood Supply for Long Bones

• Nutrient artery & vein.
• Periosteal twigs of vessels.
• Articular vessels near the joint ends.

Types of Bones

• Short bones: are small cubical bones e.g., carpal & tarsal bones.
• Flat bones: they protect & allow flat wide surface for muscle attachment e.g. skull cap & scapula.
• Irregular bones: are of irregular configuration e.g., vertebrae.
• Sesamoid bones: small nodular bones protect against friction e.g., patella.
• Pneumatic bones: air spaces in facial bones replace marrow with communication to the nasal cavity e.g., sinuses.

Skeletal System

• Axial skeleton: formed of skull & mandible, vertebral column, sternum, & ribs.
• Appendicular skeleton consists of limbs and girdles:
  • Upper limb: shoulder girdle (clavicle & scapula), arm bone (humerus), forearm bones (ulna & radius), carpal bones (8), metacarpal bones, phalanges (3 except thumb only 2).
  • Lower limb: pelvic girdle (hip bones), thigh bone (femur), leg bones (tibia & fibula), tarsal bones (7), metatarsal bones, phalanges (3 except big toe only 2).

Joints

• Joints are a junction/articulation between two/more bones.
• Fibrous joints: bones are connected by intervening fibrous tissue e.g., sutures of skull & syndesmosis between ends of tibia & fibula.
• Cartilaginous joints: bones connected by cartilage.
  • Primary cartilaginous: hyaline cartilage as epiphyseal cartilage plate (no movement).
  • Secondary cartilaginous joint: fibrocartilage as intervertebral disc (limited movement).
• Synovial joints: connection via synovial fluid with enclosed fibrous capsule

Synovial Joint Structures

• Articular cartilage: formed of hyaline cartilage which provides a smooth surface.
• Fibrous capsule: Encloses the joint with vessels and nerves.
• Synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.
• Lubricating synovial fluid minimizes friction between articular surfaces.
• Ligaments: Strong fibrous bands connecting bones.

Synovial Joint Structures Continued

• Articular disc: Fibrocartilage, compression to absorb shock & minimize friction e.g., T/M, knee, & sterno-clavicular joints.
• Intra-articular ligaments: knee joint ligaments inside the joint cavity e.g. cruciate ligaments.
• Muscle tendons: shoulder joints e.g. the tendon is found in the long head of biceps.

Classification of Synovial Joints

• Plane joints: flat articular surfaces allow minimal gliding movement inter-carpal joint.
• Uni-axial joints:
  • Hinge joints: with transverse axis e.g., elbow joint.
  • Pivot joints: with longitudinal axis e.g., median Atlanto-axial joint.
• Bi-axial joints:
  • Ellipsoidal joint: oval convexity in elliptical concavity e.g., Radio-carpal joint.
  • Saddle joint: concavo-convex opposition e.g., carpo-metacarpal joint of thumb.
• Multi-axial joints:
  • Ball & socket joints e.g., hip & shoulder joints.

Muscles

• Muscles are bands of fibrous tissue able to contract producing movement

Muscle Types

• Skeletal Muscles
  • They are attached to the skeleton with voluntary action.
  • Cutting its nerves causes paralysis.
• Cardiac Muscles
  • Are present in the heart for involuntary action.
  • Cutting of cardiac nerves produces no paralysis (autonomous).
• Smooth Muscles
  • Are present in the viscera (intestine & blood vessels) for involuntary action.
  • Cutting its nerves causes paralysis.

Skeletal Muscles Structure and Forms

• Skeletal muscles are 43% of body weight (39% in female) containing three parts:
  • Origin: proximal fixed end of the muscle.
  • Insertion: distal mobile end of the muscle.
  • Fleshy belly: central main bulk of the muscle.
• Muscle attachments: muscles attach by fleshy belly, rope-like tendons or wide-sheet like aponeurosis.
  • Fleshy attachment with direct attachment. -Muscle tendon for roper-like. -Aponeurosis for sheeth like.

Skeletal Muscle Forms

• Parallel: muscle fibers parallel to line of pull e.g., Biceps brachii.
• Oblique (pinnate):
  • Uni-pinnate with half feather e.g., Flexor pollices longus.
  • Bi-pinnate has shape of complete feather e.g., Rectus femoris.
  • Multipinnate with multiple shaped of feathers e.g., Deltoid muscle.
• Convergent form or fan shape e.g., Temporalis.
• Circular or sphincter like e.g., Orbicularis oculi.
• Segmented form with fused parts e.g., Rectus abdominis.

Muscle Actions and Synovial Membranes

• Prime movers do specific action at a joint e.g., Brachialis in elbow flexion.
• Antagonists oppose prime movers e.g., Triceps in elbow flexion.
• Synersgists & fixators act to to stabilize other joints to facilitate the prime mover movement

Muscle Related Synovial Membranes:

• Synovial bursa: with synovial membrane is for closed fibrous sac lubrication where muscule rubs a bony prominence e.g. Subscapularis.
• Synovial sheath: with synovial membrane which lubricates, is for long muscles rubbing bones.
• Muscle related snynovial mebranes include Synovial sheaths of the hand and Subscapular bursa

Heart

• Conical-like structure is a hollow is a muscular blood pump in the middle mediastinum of chest cavity, inside the pericardium, and consists of two atrias with two ventricles
• The Pericardium: two layers
  • Outer fibrous layer (Fibrous pericardium). -Inner serous sac (Serous pericardium).
• The Serous Pericardium is formed of two layers:
  --Visceral-Adherent to heart --Parietal -Lines the inner surface of fibrous Pericardium
• The Pericardial Cavity: contains pericardial fluid for the lubrication of cardiac contraction

Heart Features and Chambers

• External Features of the Heart, --Sterno-costal surface: faces the sternum & ribs and It is formed of both ventricles, right atrium with its auricle & left auricle is not present on atrium --Diaphragmatic surface, faces to the upper area, toward Diagphramm with form both right & left ventricles.

Heart Chambers Details

• Internal features of Heart has 4 chambers: 2 Atria & 2 Ventricles.
• -Right Atrium +++Anterior rough part of the muscle ridges (called Musculi Pectinati) & posterior smooth part. +++Receives openings from opening from SVC & IVC
• -Left Atrium +++The four Pulmonarly veincs carry Oxygenated blood from the lungs
• -Right Ventricle +++Muscle ridges known as trabeculae carneae +++Papillary muscles connect to Atrio-Ventricular +++Receives blood via Tri-cusped valve. +++Pumps blood to aorta via semilunar cusps.
• -Left Ventricle +++Thicker walls than right ventricle, and receives bi-cusped +++Mitral valve, pumps through semilunar cusps.

Blood Circulation and Supply

• Blood circulation serves for -oxygenation of the blood, right ventricle pumps into lungs for oxygen, return via Pulmonnarly vierns -body tissue oxygen -Left ventricle pumps into Aorta and via oxygenated blood.
• Blood Vessel presence
  • present to atria through coronary -Arteries-ascending aorta -Right coronary-right side of the heart -Left Coronary- left side of the heart -Coronary Sinuses end into right atrium

Vessels And Tissue

• Thick blood vessels are for arterial and carry flow from the heart vs thin are veinal which come from the heart.
• Capillaries are microscopic, allow O2 and nutrients to suppply.
• Avascular are tissues lacking capillaries - i.e. cartilage, eye tissue.

Lymphatic System

• lymph-colorless fluid -tissue drainage from the body cells to not return reabsorbed through the cappaliries -sites no lymph presence, cns and avascular tissue -WBC Rich
• lymphatic vessels -transport tissues to lymph nodes with valves
• lymph capillaires are blind where blind are present around vessels

Lymph Details

• Affernt vessels transport collection to lymph
• Efferent Lymph transports the transport after filtration
• Trunck froms vessel to lymphatic union
• Two duct types
  • Right Transports the Transports hemic areas -Thoractic, the ramining

Tissue

Lymphoid organised structured, respond in immune

Digestive System

• Converts basic form, nutrients and convert base energies to nourish
• Alimary, through organs to be digested
• Liver, Stomachs, Glands = digest and contirbute digestive juices
• Petitoneum : continous membrane, lining abdominal, which adheres

Digestion - Mouth

• vestubule lips and cheeks,
• proper part,
• hard palate -2/3 -
• Palate 1/3
• -tongues membrane on the outer

Glands

• Salvary : parotids
• subinbular glands

Pharynx

• common tube which contains 3

1. naso 2)oro
2. laryngopharynx

Esophagus

-1 )inches down to Stomoac, parts

1. cevical part -neck 2)main is in main tube 3)abdominal parts diaphragm stomach.

Stomach

• dilpated area, upper cavity -and includes-J SHAPED, tow borders and right to left, sides

Stomach Surfaces

• two surface areas, Anterior and Posterior, with 3 parts

Stomach Parts

• the parts

1. fundus 2)Body and
2. Pyloric ends parts end,

• cardiac -esophagus
• plyoric joints, -diodenum

Small and Largte Intentsines

• 6 meters food absortions : duedenum, illeum and jenuem, as well, 10 inches around C
• It contains walls - saccule, in bands

Livers Parts and More Details

• It has -10 parts -a part of the large intestine

10 parts total

• first parts ilium
• veriformix for conectity- acending righic transverse section veriformix

Additional Tissue and Supplies Details to Nerves

• It a big orga

• the hyper choudum and epigastric region

• --Livers Lober Area left and right parts

• Surface parts

• Anterior

• Surface

• Posterior

• Superficial

• inferior

• pericardium

• liver vessels on the under

• --artery or veins

Portal Areas

• with nurtiens, enable bad substances for circulation
• collection of from alimentarut area = bile and livers - hepatic , connects the lobes . connects to cycts glands to CBD pancreas - horzontal, lumbar vertebra part
• head
• necks
• body

Body Details

• it connects to the spleen and has gland - islete
• mix iselt
• -exocrine and endicrine sections

Nervous System and Neurons

• the nerve structue, nerve cell
• cells body
• axion trasmittions --forms myelin shafts.
• nucleaus collectionis in the -CNS
• Ganglions - cells collect in the PNS.
• snaypse - fucitonal activiation by the nerves, throug neutrotransmitters.

Axion and Brain Structures

• Brainstem and cells with myelin sheath, nerve for component cerebrum,and spinal cord.

##Spinal Cord and Functioning

• Cylindrical cord inside the canal vertebal and outside area , mylinated nerve fibers , interior is, shaped, functions and autonomic function as the following

1. Functionalities (cerebrum), Lobe Occipital

Perpherial Information

• the brain Stem and spinal nerves 32 pairs, the nervous system is two parts with information is cranial vs sympathetic
  • Sympathetic section is the follow the Olfactory and Optic , and then the Oculomotor

Spinal Information

• Attached cord and dortal and cervical parts, - Spinal Structure, ventral roots unite to forms in and through the vertebrae, to Central cannal which forms
• organ fuction in heart and muscule s
• parasympanthetc
• sympatic increase
• para lowers hear
• respriatory - bronich constrict

Respitory Information

• gas exchange
• contains nose , pharayax, muscles and lungs .. contains vestibule region with skin .

Larynx and Organs

• naso opens middele and
• oro contains tonil
• larygo-pharynx is inlet 1)Its wall is made up of cartilages
  1. thyriod cartilage is formed promince in the midline adam appple

Traech and Blood Information

• supoprted is the tube, which cillited
• the bronchial is 2
• the right bronchis i
• lobery secondary 1)they are subdivided which subdived The Blood and Lung are the : left and right side
• lung apex , neck
• posterior -reltes to vertebral ,.

Hilium area:

broncus main is Media area: midline ches with vessels

Pluera information

• -a serous sac Visucal 1)periental layer 2)Pulara Cavity -fluid

3. Lungs Details The different left

• --Thin area shifts ,cardiac. right
• --Larger 3 labes is formed

Urien and Size Information

The following parts Ureths system and and kidney system and kidneys system and bladder system and kidney system and bladder system and urethra are the

1)soft radius organ, is prsent or renal is the core system

Renal Information

is side coloum , posterior to abdomianm wall

• ----- Cortex, a mix of nephrons ( units (

Renal Medalla: The kidneys -collecting ureter- relation of the interior - right parts liver

Kid Info

• --Spleen of the liver. 1)artery vs renal artery

2. hilum- enter vessel 3)renals covering. -1capusles Kidnes fascsiles

• ----ureters connect the pelvis with urine ,
• 1. muscular tube connects with the urien vessel

2. bladder . pelvic cavity contains

• smooth muscles called
• ---uerths : connect external parts to the body

Female Information

length cms vaginal vertuble Male-20 cm

Male information the vas has

• Proastic
• mebransouns Pencile.
• --Urethal is interal smootb for
• skeleal out

Repoductive Information - Female vs Male

The structue is anatomical and function is systemically

• external geiantal, major mino clitor
• breasts ismamary area
• ----Inner

1. ovarie : main organs
2. fallopian tubes 3)uterus vagina

ovaries are primary organs . produce estrpgic hromones to produce sex fallopian tubes has 10 cms long. sites include and trasport for tube

Uterus Information

• pear- shapped
• parts - 3 inch in the petric avity body.
• Cervuc.
• parts include a super vagina and upper vgainal

laytes-3

• epimertuim (outer peritoral) myomuetrium (middle - smopths uscles)
• compact layers

Ovaries and Uterus Information

• implantation

• vgina, fibro musclur for externals for genatili Male genitals

• ---Exteranl genital organs

• penis - organ. scrotum and testis

• Testis - primary sex organ i. duct - system

  • 1epididymis- vas

Vessels and Testis parts

• --utertha

1. protstate 2)semical vesicles

bulb: coupers glands

• testis mix glands -

• ----- endocrine ( Testorne)

• ----- Exocreine

• vas diffrenes

• secrects akaline fluids -neutralize the

• uterua of the bladder

##Choromosomes Details In human choromosomes - exam cells which

• the from two cells

• location of center, classifed and sub the telo

• meta- center is central sub are near to the center. TELoc -not human

Human Chrosomes numbers

In cellomatic - diploid number : , and sex chorome in game - haptolid ( y- x) Human- size and controme,

1- groups - according 2= groups second C. groups (1) the final

Anomalies - Chromosomes, Duplication and Structure

Anomalies of chromosomes a is from strucutre Deletetion:loss Chromodite add extra apiese . chroame Inverisoin reciprocacLattacghment peice chrtame Tings fusons of ip rings likle

Numerciale

A somatic is from Chromosen Extry chrosme triomy

• Reduciton A Nonduscturtion - chrotams
• Daughetr one copy only Clinical down

Down : XY-21 chroma

Features : Low And Klinefelter

Fetures: Low is born with the Flattening in the back. Klinef- Gena and male is +xxe

• Fetures: -hips femaile

• --narrow shoulders

• infintial Genitals

• Gyencotista

• Toruner syndrome is Genetic with x0 feature.

• features short sture mentally retardded

Lecture notes on general anatomy and embryology. Topics include anatomical position and nomenclature. It also covers planes, movements, and terms of relationships.