Gastrointestinal Disorders Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What are the four potential complications of chronic peptic ulcers?

Obstruction, hemorrhage, perforation, and malignant transformation.

How does the pain associated with gastric ulcers differ from that of duodenal ulcers?

Gastric ulcer pain occurs within 2 hours after eating, while duodenal ulcer pain occurs late at night and is often hunger-related.

What are the three anatomical parts of the small intestine?

Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

List two types of intestinal obstruction and provide an example for each.

<p>Mechanical obstruction (example: tumors) and neurologic obstruction (example: paralytic ileus).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What lifestyle factors contribute to the development of hemorrhoids?

<p>Chronic constipation and venous stasis during pregnancy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what demographic are hemorrhoids most commonly found, and why?

<p>Hemorrhoids are most commonly found in the elderly and pregnant women due to increased pressure on the veins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do the villi play in the mucosa of the small intestine?

<p>Villi increase the absorptive surface area of the small intestine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main histological difference between the small and large intestine?

<p>Both have four layers, but the small intestine has villi for increased absorption, which the large intestine lacks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is achalasia, and how does it affect the esophagus during swallowing?

<p>Achalasia is a neuromuscular dysfunction of the cardiac sphincter that fails to relax during swallowing, hindering food passage into the stomach.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the common etiological factors that can lead to hiatus hernia?

<p>Common etiological factors for hiatus hernia include congenitally short esophagus and acquired degeneration of muscle, particularly due to increased intra-abdominal pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes esophageal diverticula from other esophageal pathologies?

<p>Esophageal diverticula are characterized by outpouching of the esophageal wall at points of weakness, which can be either congenital or acquired.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify two primary etiological factors of acute gastritis.

<p>Two primary etiological factors of acute gastritis are dietary habits (such as spicy food or alcohol) and infections like Helicobacter pylori.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common infection associated with chronic gastritis?

<p>The most common infection associated with chronic gastritis is Helicobacter pylori.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes acute peptic ulcers, and where are they primarily located?

<p>Acute peptic ulcers, primarily found in the stomach, are caused by psychological and physiological stresses such as trauma or shock.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List two major factors contributing to chronic peptic ulcers.

<p>Two major factors contributing to chronic peptic ulcers are infection with Helicobacter pylori and the use of NSAIDs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do psychological factors play in the development of chronic peptic ulcers?

<p>Psychological factors such as stress and anxiety can exacerbate the development of chronic peptic ulcers by increasing gastric acid secretion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

<p>The three main parts of a neuron are the cell body, axon, and dendrites.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of microglia in the central nervous system?

<p>Microglia act as the monocyte-macrophage system with phagocytic functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List the common etiologic agents of Acute Pyogenic Meningitis.

<p>Common etiologic agents include Escherichia coli, Hemophilus influenza, Neisseria meningitidis, and Streptococcus pneumonia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the clinical features of Chronic Meningitis?

<p>The clinical features of Chronic Meningitis include headache, confusion, malaise, and vomiting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between ischemic brain damage and intracranial hemorrhage.

<p>Ischemic brain damage is caused by reduced blood flow, whereas intracranial hemorrhage involves bleeding within the brain or its surrounding spaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify a common viral cause of viral encephalitis.

<p>Herpes simplex virus is a common cause of viral encephalitis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the pia mater in the central nervous system?

<p>The pia mater is closely applied to the brain and plays a crucial role in protecting and nourishing the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome results from local vascular obstruction in the brain?

<p>Local vascular obstruction can lead to cerebral infarcts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition results from a generalized reduction in blood flow to the brain?

<p>Global hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of intracranial hemorrhage mentioned?

<p>Intracerebral hemorrhage and subarachnoid hemorrhage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?

<p>A temporary period of symptoms of a stroke.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which degenerative disease is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly?

<p>Alzheimer's Disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary motor features of Parkinsonism?

<p>Tremor at rest, rigidity, and disordered gait.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes peripheral neuropathy (PN) in terms of sensory features?

<p>Symmetrical sensations such as tingling, pricking, and burning in feet and toes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the major function of the nephron's glomerulus?

<p>Filtration from capillaries to the urinary space.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the kidney play in regulating blood pressure?

<p>By formation of renin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Pathology

  • This is a general topic of study in the field of medicine
  • Pathology involves studying the causes and effects of diseases on the body
  • More specifically, this presentation focuses on a major system such as the gastrointestinal system

Gastrointestinal System Pathology

  • This is a sub-topic of pathology
  • This focuses the study of diseases of the digestive system, beginning from the esophagus to the anal canal

Muscular Dysfunctions of the Esophagus

  • Achalasia (Cardiospasm):

    • Neuromuscular dysfunction of the cardiac sphincter.
    • The cardiac sphincter fails to relax during swallowing

  • Hiatus hernia:

    • Part of the stomach herniates through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm.
    • Etiology includes congenitally short esophagus, and acquired degeneration of muscle.
    • Increased intra-abdominal pressure, such as during pregnancy, can also contribute.

  • Esophageal Diverticula:

    • Outpouching of the esophageal wall at a point of weakness.
    • Etiology includes congenital or acquired factors (pulsion or traction).

Inflammatory Diseases of Stomach

  • Acute Gastritis:

    • Etiology includes diet and personal habits, infections, drugs, chemical and physical agents, and stress.
    • Specific risk factors include spicy food, alcohol, malnutrition and smoking, Infections (Helicobacter pylori, staphylococcal food poisoning) Drugs: aspirin, NSAIDs, and cortisone
    • Chemical and physical Agents; intake of corrosive materials
    • Stress and trauma

  • Chronic Gastritis:

    • Etiology includes acute gastritis factors, infection with Helicobacter pylori, reflux of duodenal contents into the stomach, associated diseases (gastric and duodenal ulcers or carcinoma), chronic hypochromic anemia, and immunological factors.

  • Peptic Ulcers:

    • Degeneration and necrosis of gastrointestinal mucosa exposed to hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
    • Locations include duodenum, stomach and esophagus.

  • Acute Peptic (Stress) Ulcers:

    • Multiple, small mucosal erosions located mostly in the stomach.
    • Etiology: psychological stress, physiological stress(shock, severe trauma, septicemia, extensive burns, intracranial lesions), drug intake, and local irritants.
    • Pathogenesis; Ischemic hypoxic injury to the mucosal cells cause depleting of the mucus barrier.

  • Chronic Peptic Ulcers:

    • Duodenal ulcers are four times more common than gastric ulcers.
    • More common in males.
    • Etiology includes Helicobacter pylori, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) induced mucosal injury, acid-pepsin secretions, gastritis.
    • Local irritants: (alcohol, smoking, and aspirin)
    • Additional factors include Dietary factors, psychological factors, genetic factors, and hormonal factors (alcoholic cirrhosis, chronic renal failure).

  • Complications of Peptic Ulcers:

    • Obstruction (fibrous scar causing pyloric or duodenal stenosis)
    • Hemorrhage (minor or severe bleeding)
    • Perforation (acute abdominal emergency)
    • Malignant transformation

  • Clinical Features of Peptic Ulcers:

    • Age: the peak incidence for a duodenal ulcer is in the 50s, for gastric ulcers it is 60s.
    • Stress and strain is a risk factor for duodenal ulcers; and a risk factor for gastric ulcers in laboring people.
    • Pain: Gastric ulcer pain occurs within 2 hours after food; duodenal ulcer pain is severe and often occurs late at night (hunger pain) and is relieved by food.

  • Additional Symptoms of Peptic Ulcers:

    • Vomiting relieves gastric ulcer pain.

    • Weight loss is common in gastric ulcers; duodenal ulcer patient tend to gain weight

    • Diet: gastric ulcer patient avoid fried and spiced foods, duodenal ulcer patient take all kind of diet.

    • Hematemesis and Melena. Hematemesis occur more in gastric ulcers; melena occur more in duodenal ulcers.

Small Intestine

  • Function:

    • Digestion and absorption

  • Anatomical Parts:

    • Duodenum
    • Jejunum
    • Ileum

  • Histology:

    • Four layers: Serosa, muscularis propria, submucosa, and mucosa. (absorptive surface is increased by the villi)

Intestinal Obstruction

  • Mechanical Obstruction:

    • Internal obstructions: includes inflammatory disease, tumors, meconium, gallstones and foreign bodies
    • External compression: includes peritoneal adhesions, strangulated hernias, intussusception, volvulus, and intra-abdominal tumors.

  • Neurologic Obstruction:

    • Paralytic ileus: following abdominal operations or acute peritonitis.

  • Vascular Obstruction:

    • Obstruction of the superior mesenteric artery (thrombosis, embolism, accidental ligation)

Large Intestine

  • Anatomy:

    • Cecum
    • Ascending Colon
    • Transverse Colon
    • Descending Colon
    • Sigmoid Colon
    • Rectum

  • Histology:

    • Four layers: Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa

Miscellaneous Lesions (Hemorrhoids (Piles))

  • Definition:

    • Varicosities of the hemorrhoidal veins.
    • Internal and External Piles.

  • Etiology:

    • Chronic constipation
    • Hereditary
    • Venous stasis of pregnancy
    • Portal Hypertension
    • Cardiac failure
    • Rectum tumors

The Nervous System Pathology

  • This section in the presentation focuses on the pathologies of the nervous system.

Central Nervous System

  • Neurons:

    • Highly specialized cells, incapable of dividing after the first week of birth.

    • Neuron damage is irreversible.

    • Three main parts: cell body, axon, dendrites

  • Neuroglia (Glia):

    • Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells

    • Microglia; part of the monocyte-macrophage system, have phagocytic function.

  • Dura mater : fibrous layer attached to the skull

  • Arachnoid mater: vascular layer, contains cerebrospinal fluid

  • Pia mater: closely applied to the brain

Infections

  • Acute Pyogenic (Purulent) Meningitis:

    • Acute infection of the pia-arachnoid and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
    • Etiologic agents: Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae
    • Clinical features: fever, severe headache, vomiting, drowsiness, stupor, coma, convulsions, neck stiffness.

  • Acute Lymphocytic (Viral, Aseptic) Meningitis:

    • Etiologic agents: enteroviruses, mumps, ECHO viruses, Coxsackie virus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex virus-2, HIV, arthropod-borne viruses
    • Clinical features: fever, severe headache, vomiting, drowsiness, stupor, coma, convulsions, neck stiffness

  • Chronic (Tuberculous and Cryptococcal=fungal) Meningitis:

    • Clinical features: headache, confusion, malaise, vomiting

  • Encephalitis:

    • Parenchymal infection of the brain.

    • Bacterial encephalitis: Usually secondary to meningitis, may progress to brain abscess. - Clinical features: fever, headache, vomiting, seizures, focal neurologic deficits.

    • Viral encephalitis: includes Herpes simplex, herpes zoster varicella; enteroviruses; cytomegalovirus; HIV; rabies virus.

Cerebrovascular Diseases (CVD)

  • Etiology:

  • pathological processes of the blood vessels of the brain, thrombosis, embolism, rupture of the vessel, hypoxia, hypertensive arteriolosclerosis; atherosclerosis; arteritis, trauma, aneurysm, and developmental malformations

  • Results: in two main types of parenchymal diseases

    • Ischemic brain damage
      • General reduction in blood flow causing global hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.
      • Local vascular obstruction can cause cerebral infarcts.
    • Intracranial hemorrhage
      • Intracerebral hemorrhage
      • Subarachnoid hemorrhage.

  • Clinical features: stroke (sudden developing focal neurological deficit ranging from minor neurological disorder to hemiplegia and coma.) TIA (temporal period of symptoms of the stroke).

Degenerative Diseases

  • Alzheimer's Disease:

    • Most common cause of dementia in the elderly.
    • Occurs after the 5th decade, and its incidence progressively increases with age.
    • Brain reduced in weight, bilaterally atrophic.
    • Etiology unknown. Family history is important.

  • Parkinsonism:

    • Chronic, progressive disorder of motor function.

    • Characterized by tremor at rest, apparent at rest, and worsen with emotional stress.

    • Rigidity, disordered gait, and posture.

    • Etiology: Parkinson's disease, trauma, toxic agents, and drugs (dopamine antagonist).

Peripheral Neuropathy

  • Definition:

  • Symmetric sensory features (tingling, pricking, burning, dysesthesia in the feet and toes).

  • Motor features: Muscle weakness, loss of tendon reflexes

  • Etiology: -Diabetes, Thiamine (B1 Vitamin) deficiency, amyloidosis, autoimmune demyelinating disease (Guillain-Barré syndrome), toxins, and chemotherapeutic agents

Renal Pathology

  • Kidneys: Bean-shaped paired organs, weighing 150g (male) and 135g (female). Kidney hilum contains artery, vein and ureter. Each kidney is composed of approximately 1,000,000 nephrons.

  • Nephrons: functional unit of the kidney

  • Structure (Glomerulus): filtration from capillaries to the urinary space

  • Glomerular filtration rate (GFR): 125 ml/dk.

  • Tubules: reabsorption of sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, calcium, uric acid, water; secretion of hydrogen and potassium.

  • Renal Functions:

    • Excretion of waste products (urea, ammonia, uric acid)
    • Regulation of acid-base balance (H+ and bicarbonate ions)
    • Regulation of salt-water balance (Na+) -Regulation of blood pressure (renin)
    • Regulation of erythropoiesis by erythropoietin.
    • Formation of Vit. D.

  • Renal Function Tests: -Urine Analysis (microscopic, bacteriologic, chemical tests: glucose, protein, hemoglobin, -Blood chemistry (urea, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine) -Renal clearance tests (creatinine clearance, urea clearance).

  • Acute Renal Failure:

    • Characterized by rapid onset of renal dysfunction (oliguria and anuria, sudden increase in urea and creatinine in the blood[uremia]) -Clinical features include oliguric phase (7-10 days, <400 ml/day urine output, uremia), hypervolemia, metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia, hypernatremia -Diuretic phase (onset of healing of tubules, improvement in urinary output)
      • Recovery phase (full recovery may take up to one year, occurs in half of cases).

  • Chronic Renal Failure:

    • Progressive and irreversible deterioration of renal function
    • Etiopathogenesis: Classified into glomerular and tubulointerstitial pathologies.
    • Progressively four stages: Decreased renal reserve (GFR 50% normal, asymptomatic) ; Renal insufficiency (GFR 25% of normal, polyuria and nocturia); Renal failure (GFR 10%, edema, metabolic acidosis, uremia), and End-stage kidney (GFR < 5%, uremic syndrome)

  • Chronic Renal Failure: Clinical Features:

    • Renal Manifestations (metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia (hyperpotassemia), sodium and water imbalance, hyperuricemia, azotemia(increase in urea and creatinine blood level), extra renal manifestations (anemia, skin discoloration[urochrome], cardiovascular system; congestive heart failure/pulmonary edema; respiratory system; digestive system [azotemia induces mucosal ulceration], and skeletal system[renal osteodystrophy, Vit D deficiency]),

  • Glomerular Diseases:

    • Glomerulonephritis : Proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, disturbed excretory function. Diagnosed through renal biopsy.
    • Different glomerular diseases; acute and chronic renal failure, nephritic and nephrotic syndrome and asymptomatic proteinuria and hematuria.
    • Diabeteic Nephropathy: renal involvement important complication of diabetes mellitus.

  • Tubular and Tubulointerstitial Diseases:

    • Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN): Most common and significant cause of acute renal failure (ARF). Caused by damage to tubular epithelial cells due to ischemia or toxic agents. Leads to reduced GFR and oliguria.
    • Acute Pyelonephritis: Acute suppurative inflammation of the kidney. Typically caused by pyogenic bacteria (most commonly Escherichia coli). Clinical features include chills, fever, lumbar tenderness/pain, dysuria, and frequent urination. Urine shows bacteria in excess of 100,000/ml.
    • Chronic Pyelonephritis: Resulting from repeated acute suppurative inflammatory attacks of the kidney due to pyogenic bacteria. Etiopathogenesis: Reflux nephropathy (reflux of urine from the bladder into the ureter [vesicoureteric reflux]), and Obstructive pyelonephritis. Clinical features include hypertension; features of acute recurrent pyelonephritis (fever, lumbar pain & tenderness, dysuria, pyuria, bacteriuria, frequency or urination). Diagnosis is by intravenous pyelography Urine culture may give + results.

  • Renal Vascular Diseases:

    • Hypertensive Vascular Disease: A persistent and sustained high blood pressure that affects the heart, brain and kidney (nephrosclerosis).
      • Essential/Primary hypertension: unknown cause, genetic and environmental factors; ~80-95% of cases.
      • Secondary hypertension: cause is a disease of the kidney or endocrine ~5-20% cases).
      • Types of Hypertension based on clinical course: - Benign hypertension: 90-95% of cases, moderate elevation of blood pressure and the rise is slow over the years. -Malignant hypertension: ~5% of patients, marked and sudden elevation of BP to 200/140 mmHg (or more)

  • Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones):

    • Formation of urinary calculi in the urinary tract.
    • 2% of the population affected, and male/female ratio is 2:1.
    • Peak incidence is in the 2nd to 3rd decades.

  • Types of Urinary Calculi: -Calcium stones (75%) - Calcium oxalate - Calcium phosphate - Mixed

    • Mixt (struvite) stones (15%)
    • Uric acid stones (6%) -Cystine stones (<2%) and Other stones (<2%)

Liver and Biliary Tract Pathology

  • Liver Functions:

    • Metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
    • Production of plasma proteins (albumin, fibrinogen, prothrombin)
    • Production and excretion of bile
    • Storage of vitamins (A, D, B12), and iron
    • Detoxification of alcohol and drugs

  • Liver Function Tests: -Serum enzyme tests (AST [SGOT], ALT [SGPT], γ-GT). Measurement of serum protein levels (albumin) and clotting factors -Bile tests: serum bilirubin

    • Immunologic tests: Antibodies to hepatitis (HbsAg, Hbc, HbeAg). -Other diagnostic tests; ultrasound; liver biopsy

  • Jaundice (Icterus):

    • Yellow pigmentation of the skin and sclera due to bilirubin
    • Result from hyperbilirubinemia (elevated blood bilirubin levels).
    • Normal serum bilirubin is 0.3-1.3 mg/dL, clinically evident jaundice is >2 mg/dL.

  • Hepatic failure:

  • Acute Hepatic failure: acute and fulminant liver injury with massive necrosis of liver cells (causes include acute viral hepatitis, hepatotoxic drugs, acute alcoholic hepatitis; mushroom poisoning, pregnancy complicated w/eclampsia).

  • Chronic Hepatic failure:from advanced chronic liver disease (Causes Cirrhosis, chronic active hepatitis, chronic cholestasis), Wilson's disease.

  • Manifestations of Hepatic Failure:

    • Jaundice; impaired ability of liver cells to metabolize bilirubin. -Hepatic encephalopathy: altered consciousness, personality change, intellectual deterioration, slurred speech, flapping tremors, coma, and death due to buildup of toxic products not metabolized by the liver. Other manifestations include hyperkinetic circulation(peripheral vasodilation, increased cardiac output, increased splanchnic blood flow; reduced renal blood flow and function; hepatorenal syndrome(hepatic and renal failure); and hepatopulmonary syndrome (pulmonary vasodilation, impaired pulmonary function, clubbing of fingers, cyanosis), and coagulation defects (impaired synthesis of coagulation factors leading to coagulation disorders- disseminated intravascular coagulation), ascites and edema(chronic liver failure due to cirrhosis may lead to portal hypertension).

  • Viral Hepatitis:

    • Hepatitis A (HAV): Spread via the fecal-oral route, contact with overcrowding, poor hygiene and poor sanitation
    • Hepatitis B (HBV): Parenterally transmitted disease, can become chronic
    • Hepatitis C (HCV): Transfusion-related, can cause acute hepatitis, higher rate of progression to chronic hepatitis than HBV, may lead to cirrhosis and asymptomatic carrier stage, and may role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma.
    • Hepatitis Delta (HDV): Superinfection with HBV
    • Hepatitis E (HEV): Waterborne infection
    • Hepatitis G (HGV): Recently discovered transfusion-transmitted virus

  • Other Infections and Manifestations; Hydatid Disease (Echinococcosis):

Endocrine System Pathology

  • Endocrine System Organs: Pituitary gland, Adrenals, Thyroids, Parathyroids, Gonads, Pancreatic islets

  • Major Functions of Hormones: Growth, differentiation of cells; maintenance of homeostasis, and reproduction (sexual development and activity).

  • Hormonal Abnormalities: -Hyperfunction: excess hormone-secreting tissues (hyperplasia, tumors), ectopic hormone production, excessive stimulation (autoimmune diseases, infections, iatrogenic hormone administration)

    • Hypofunction: destruction of hormone-producing tissues (autoimmune diseases, infections, iatrogenic, developmental defects, enzyme deficiency, hemorrhage, infarction), Nutritional deficiency (e.g., iodine deficiency)
    • Hormone resistance: adequate/excessive hormone production but peripheral resistance/inherited mutations in receptors (e.g., defect in membrane or nuclear receptors).

  • Endocrine Pancreas: Beta cells of the pancreas secrete insulin; defective response or deficient synthesis of insulin cause diabetes mellitus.

  • Diabetes Mellitus (DM): characterized by chronic hyperglycemia which can also affect carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism.

  • Pathogenesis of DM

    • Reduced insulin secretion
    • Decreased glucose use by the body
    • Increased glucose production.

  • Etiologic Classification of DM: -Type 1 DM (Insulin-dependent or juvenile-onset): Destruction of beta cells leading to insulin deficiency. -Type 2 DM (Non-insulin-dependent or maturity-onset):Impaired insulin secretion or insulin resistance. -Other types: Infections; drug induced -Gestational DM:due to metabolic changes during pregnancy

  • Major Risk Factors of Type 2 DM: Family history; Obesity; Habitual physical inactivity; Hypertension; Dyslipidemia; Polycystic ovary disease; Impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance test; Race and ethnicity; History of gestational diabetes; and History of vascular disease

  • Clinical Features of Type 1 DM: Manifest early in life (<35 years); rapid onset of symptoms; polyuria; polydipsia; polyphagia; significant progressive weight loss; prone to ketoacidosis and hypoglycemic episodes.

  • Clinical Features of Type 2 DM: Manifest after 40; slow onset of symptoms; often asymptomatic at diagnosis, glycosuria; hyperglycemia; polyuria; polydipsia; and patients are often obese, but may have a loss of weight. Metabolic complications are less frequent.

  • Pathogenesis of complications: Microvascular complications: retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, Macrovascular complications: atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, cerebrovascular disease.

  • Complications of diabetes: Acute metabolic complications; Diabetic ketoacidosis; Hypoglycemic episodes; Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic coma. Late systemic complications; Atherosclerosis; Diabetic microangiopathy; Diabetic nephropathy; Diabetic neuropathy; Diabetic retinopathy; Infections.

  • Thyroid Gland: Major function is maintaining high metabolic rate through iodine containing hormones T3 and T4

  • Functional Disorders

    • Hyperthyroidism (Thyrotoxicosis): Hypermetabolic clinical and biochemical state caused by excess thyroid hormone production.
      • Etiopathogenesis: most common causes are Graves disease, toxic multinodular goiter, toxic adenoma
    • Clinical Features: emotional instability, nervousness, palpitation, fatigue, weight loss, heat intolerance, sweating, menstrual disturbances, fine tremor, tachycardia, palpitations, weakness of muscles and osteoporosis, exophthalmia.

    -Thyroiditis: Inflammation of the thyroid gland, usually due to non-infectious causes. -Types: - Acute thyroiditis: Bacterial and fungal infection, radiation injury - Subacute thyroiditis: Subacute granulomatous thyroiditis - Chronic thyroiditis: Autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto's thyroiditis) - Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: Frequently between the ages 30-50 years of age. -Ten-fold preponderance in females; -most common cause of goitrous hypothyroidism in regions where iodine supplies are adequate. -Autoimmune disease.
    -Clinical features: painless, firm, moderate goitrous enlargement of the thyroid gland often associated with hypothyroidism; - Graves' Disease (Diffuse Toxic Goiter): Frequently between the ages of 30-40. 5-fold increase in females. Clinical features include hyperthyroidism, diffuse thyroid enlargement, ophthalmopathy. Etiopathogenesis related to genetic factors and autoimmune disease associations

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Test your knowledge on gastrointestinal disorders with this quiz. It covers topics such as peptic ulcers, intestinal anatomy, and common complications associated with gastrointestinal conditions. Perfect for students studying medicine or healthcare-related fields.

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