Fuzzy Trace and Spreading Activation Theories

Fuzzy Trace Theory

• Explains how false memories form: During retrieval, both verbatim memory traces and gist memory traces are used to reconstruct memories.
• This theory explains several phenomena:
  • Forewarning: Forewarning does not reduce false memories because the gist is still a useful cue to reconstruct an event.
  • Increased associates: Increasing the number of associates increases false memory because a stronger extraction of gist traces occurs.
  • False memories not generated at study: False memories can still occur because the gist is used at retrieval, or because the critical lure gets activated through a process of spreading activation.

Spreading Activation Theory

• This theory expands upon Fuzzy Trace Theory and posits that words we learn become activated, making them easier to retrieve later.
• Activation spreads from associated words, which can also be considered memories.
• This activation of associated memories can lead to false memory at retrieval.

Global Similarity Accounts

• Suggests that retrieval is determined by the similarity to all memories.
• When retrieving a memory, the similarity of the cue to all memories is calculated.
• The probe word is endorsed if the similarity to all items in memory is high enough.

Global Similarity Accounts and False Memory

• This theory explains several phenomena:
  • Forewarning: Forewarning won't reduce false memory because it is an involuntary consequence of the similarity between memories and cues.
  • Increased associates: More similar items in memory lead to greater global similarity, ultimately resulting in a greater chance of false memory.
  • False memories not generated at study: Rehearsal is unnecessary for false memories to occur as the similarity between items is the deciding factor.

Misinformation Effect

• Demonstrates how false memories can be created through misleading information.
• The timing and context of the misinformation influences the likelihood of it impacting memory.
• Misinformation presented long after the event is easier to disregard.

False Childhood Memories

• Studies have demonstrated the creation of false memories for childhood events.
• The "Lost in the Mall" study showed that many participants described a story in detail even though it may never have occurred.
• The "Hot Air Balloon" study showed that participants were convinced that they had been in a hot air balloon as a child after being shown a doctored photo.

Misinformation Effect and Legal Proceedings

• The misinformation effect has implications for police interviews and legal proceedings as repeated misleading questions can influence witness memories.
• Post-identification feedback can influence a witness's confidence in their memory.

Flashbulb Memories

• Flashbulb memories are highly confident and vivid recollections of major life events.
• Brown and Kulik argued that these memories are preserved due to their high level of emotional content.

The Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories

• Studies have shown that flashbulb memories are not necessarily more accurate than other types of memories.
• Flashbulb memories are subject to reconstruction and are not perfect recordings.
• The frequency and vividness of retelling an event can lead to inaccurate memory.

Memory Wars

• The term refers to the debate about the existence and recoverability of repressed memories.
• Sigmund Freud argued that traumatic memories could be repressed, and that trained clinicians could unlock these memories.
• Beth Loftus and other researchers questioned the accuracy of recovered memories and argued that suggestive techniques could be used to create false memories.