Fundamentals of Science

• Science is a systematic and organized approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Its goal is to discover and explain facts and principles, leading to the development of theories and laws.

Core Principles of Science

• Empiricism: Knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience.
• Rationalism: Reason and logic are essential in interpreting empirical data.
• Skepticism: Scientific claims should be questioned and tested.
• Objectivity: Striving to minimize bias and personal beliefs.
• Parsimony: Preferring the simplest explanation (Occam's Razor).

Scientific Method

• Observation: Identifying a phenomenon or problem.
• Hypothesis: Formulating a testable explanation.
• Prediction: Deducing the consequences of the hypothesis.
• Experiment: Testing the hypothesis through controlled experiments.
• Analysis: Interpreting data and drawing conclusions.
• Conclusion: Accepting, rejecting, or modifying the hypothesis.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences: Study of the physical world.
  • Physics: Study of matter, energy, and their interactions.
  • Chemistry: Study of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
  • Biology: Study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution.
  • Earth Science: Study of the Earth's structure, properties, processes, and evolution.
• Social Sciences: Study of human society and social relationships.
  • Sociology: Study of social behavior, institutions, and structures.
  • Psychology: Study of the human mind and behavior.
  • Economics: Study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
  • Political Science: Study of political systems, behavior, and theory.
  • Anthropology: Study of human societies and cultures and their development.
• Formal Sciences: Study of formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science.
  • Mathematics: Study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
  • Logic: Study of the principles of valid reasoning.
  • Computer Science: Study of computation and information processing.

Physics

• Classical Mechanics: Deals with the motion of macroscopic objects under the influence of forces.
  • Newton's Laws of Motion: Three laws describing the relationship between an object's motion and the forces acting on it.
  • Conservation Laws: Principles stating that certain physical properties (e.g., energy, momentum, angular momentum) remain constant in a closed system.
• Thermodynamics: Study of energy transfer and transformation.
  • Laws of Thermodynamics: Four laws describing the behavior of energy in physical systems.
  • Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system.
• Electromagnetism: Study of electric and magnetic fields and their interactions.
  • Maxwell's Equations: A set of four equations describing the behavior of electric and magnetic fields.
  • Electromagnetic Waves: Waves that propagate through space, carrying energy.
• Quantum Mechanics: Study of the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels.
  • Wave-Particle Duality: The concept that particles can exhibit wave-like properties and waves can exhibit particle-like properties.
  • Uncertainty Principle: The principle that it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of a particle with perfect accuracy.
• Relativity: Describes the relationship between space, time, gravity, and the universe.
  • Special Relativity: Describes the relationship between space and time.
  • General Relativity: Describes gravity as a curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.

Chemistry

• Atomic Structure: The structure of atoms, including protons, neutrons, and electrons.
  • Periodic Table: A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
  • Chemical Bonding: The forces that hold atoms together to form molecules and compounds.
• Chemical Reactions: Processes that involve the rearrangement of atoms and molecules.
  • Stoichiometry: The quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
  • Chemical Kinetics: The study of reaction rates and mechanisms.
  • Chemical Equilibrium: The state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
• Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon-containing compounds.
  • Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for characteristic chemical reactions.
  • Polymers: Large molecules composed of repeating structural units (monomers).
• Biochemistry: The study of the chemical processes within living organisms.
  • Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.
  • Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism.

Biology

• Cell Biology: Study of the structure, function, and behavior of cells.
  • Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
  • Cell Structure: Includes organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
  • Cell Processes: Processes such as cell division, cell signaling, and cell transport.
• Genetics: Study of heredity and variation in organisms.
  • DNA: The molecule that carries genetic information.
  • Genes: Units of heredity that encode specific traits.
  • Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring.
• Evolution: The process by which populations of organisms change over time.
  • Natural Selection: The process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
  • Adaptation: Traits that increase an organism's survival and reproduction.
  • Speciation: The process by which new species arise.
• Ecology: Study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
  • Ecosystems: Communities of organisms interacting with their physical environment.
  • Food Webs: Networks of feeding relationships within an ecosystem.
  • Population Dynamics: The study of how populations change over time.
• Microbiology: Study of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
  • Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotic organisms.
  • Viruses: Infectious agents that replicate within host cells.
  • Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.

Earth Science

• Geology: Study of the Earth's structure, composition, and processes.
  • Plate Tectonics: The theory that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates that move and interact.
  • Rock Cycle: The process by which rocks are transformed from one type to another.
  • Geological Time Scale: A system of chronological dating that relates geological strata to time.
• Meteorology: Study of the Earth's atmosphere and weather.
  • Weather Patterns: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
  • Climate: Long-term average weather conditions.
  • Atmospheric Processes: Processes such as precipitation, evaporation, and wind.
• Oceanography: Study of the Earth's oceans.
  • Ocean Currents: The continuous, directed movement of seawater.
  • Marine Life: The organisms that live in the oceans.
  • Ocean Processes: Processes such as tides, waves, and ocean acidification.
• Astronomy: Study of celestial objects and phenomena.
  • Stars: Luminous spheres of plasma held together by their own gravity.
  • Galaxies: Vast systems of stars, gas, and dust held together by gravity.
  • Cosmology: The study of the origin, evolution, and structure of the universe.

Social Sciences

• Sociology: Study of social behavior, institutions, and structures.
  • Socialization: The process by which individuals learn the norms and values of their society.
  • Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society.
  • Social Change: Transformations in the organization and structure of society.
• Psychology: Study of the human mind and behavior.
  • Cognitive Psychology: The study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
  • Developmental Psychology: The study of how people change over the lifespan.
  • Social Psychology: The study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
• Economics: Study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
  • Microeconomics: The study of individual economic agents, such as households and firms.
  • Macroeconomics: The study of the economy as a whole, including topics such as inflation, unemployment, and economic growth.
  • Economic Systems: Different ways of organizing the production and distribution of goods and services, such as capitalism, socialism, and communism.
• Political Science: Study of political systems, behavior, and theory.
  • Political Ideologies: Sets of beliefs about the role of government and the organization of society.
  • Political Institutions: Organizations such as governments, political parties, and interest groups.
  • Political Behavior: The actions and attitudes of individuals and groups in the political process.
• Anthropology: Study of human societies and cultures and their development.
  • Cultural Anthropology: The study of human cultures and societies.
  • Archaeology: The study of past human cultures through the excavation and analysis of material remains.
  • Linguistic Anthropology: The study of language and its relationship to culture.
  • Biological Anthropology: The study of human biological variation and evolution.

Formal Sciences

• Mathematics: Study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
  • Algebra: The study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols.
  • Calculus: The study of continuous change.
  • Geometry: The study of shapes and their properties.
  • Statistics: The study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data.
• Logic: Study of the principles of valid reasoning.
  • Propositional Logic: The study of logical connectives and their truth values.
  • Predicate Logic: The study of quantifiers and predicates.
  • Formal Systems: Systems of axioms and rules of inference used to derive theorems.
• Computer Science: Study of computation and information processing.
  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures for solving problems.
  • Data Structures: Ways of organizing and storing data so that it can be used efficiently.
  • Programming Languages: Formal languages used to instruct computers to perform tasks.
  • Artificial Intelligence: The study of creating intelligent agents that can reason, learn, and act autonomously.