Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics

Mathematics is a formal system of logic and symbolic representation used to understand and quantify the world around us. It's built upon axioms (self-evident truths) and rules of inference.
Key branches of mathematics include arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, and statistics. Each branch uses different tools and techniques to solve specific types of problems.
Mathematics plays a crucial role in various fields like physics, engineering, computer science, and economics. It allows for precise modeling and analysis of complex systems.

Natural numbers (N): 1, 2, 3,... These are the counting numbers.
Whole numbers (W): 0, 1, 2, 3,... These include zero along with the natural numbers.
Integers (Z):..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... These include the whole numbers and their negative counterparts.
Rational numbers (Q): Numbers that can be expressed as a fraction p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. Examples include 1/2, 3/4, -2/5.
Irrational numbers: Numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers. Examples include π (pi) and the square root of 2.
Real numbers (R): The set of all rational and irrational numbers.
Complex numbers (C): Numbers of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit (i² = -1).

Variables: Symbols (usually letters) that represent unknown values.
Algebraic expressions: Combinations of variables, numbers, and arithmetic operations (e.g., 2x + 3y - 5).
Equations: Statements that show two expressions are equal (e.g., 2x + 5 = 11).
Inequalities: Statements that show the relationship between expressions using symbols like >, <, ≥, ≤.
Solving equations: Finding the value of the variable that makes the equation true.
Factoring: Breaking down an expression into simpler expressions that multiply together to give the original expression.
Polynomials: Algebraic expressions with variables raised to whole number exponents (e.g., x² + 3x - 2).

Shapes and figures: Includes lines, angles, triangles, circles, and various three-dimensional objects (e.g. cubes, spheres).
Properties: Study of the characteristics of shapes (e.g., area, perimeter, volume).
Transformations: Moving and changing shapes in a plane or space.
Constructions: Creating shapes using tools like rulers and compasses.

Limits: The behavior of a function as its input approaches a certain value.
Derivatives: Rate of change of a function.
Integrals: Accumulation of a function's values over a given interval.
Applications: Used in modeling motion, optimization, and other physical phenomena.

Data collection: Gathering information about a population or sample.
Data analysis: Summarizing and interpreting data using various techniques.
Probability: The likelihood of an event occurring.
Descriptive statistics: Summarizing data using measures like mean, median, and standard deviation.
Inferential statistics: Using data from a sample to make conclusions about a population.

Propositional logic: Deals with statements (propositions) and their relationships using connectives such as AND, OR, and NOT.
Predicate calculus: Extends propositional logic to allow for variables and quantifiers.
Proof techniques: Methods for demonstrating the truth of a statement.

Sets: Collections of objects, described using curly brackets {}
Subsets: One set is a subset of another if all the members of the first set are also members of the second set
Unions, intersections, complements: Operations on sets
Cardinality: Number of elements in a set.

Combinatorics: Counting techniques used to solve problems involving arrangements and selections
Graph theory: Study of graphs that consist of vertices (nodes) and edges.

Describing real-world phenomena using mathematical structures like equations and graphs
Formulating solutions and predictions that help analyze and understand these phenomena.