French and Indian War (1754-1763)

French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• George Washington initiated the war by attacking Fort Necessity.
• The French and Indian War was part of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
• Americans resisted being trained by British officers, leading to the deployment of British regulars around 1757-1758.
• The British professional army was superior to the French forces.
• Quebec fell to the British in 1759.
• Montreal was captured by the British in 1760.
• The Treaty of Paris in 1763 concluded the French and Indian War giving Great Britain Canada, all land east of the Mississippi River, India, and most French colonies in the Caribbean.
• Great Britain incurred a substantial war debt.
• Imposing taxes on America was considered, as America had contributed only 5-7% in taxes compared to England's 25%.

1763-1775: Growing Tensions

• Britain began asserting more control over the colonies.
• The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonists from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid conflicts with natives and limit war debt, but colonists largely ignored it.
• The Stamp Act of 1765 taxed all paper items, sparking outrage among colonists due to lack of representation in Parliament.
• Colonists protested "No taxation without representation" and harassed tax collectors.
• The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766.
• The Quartering Act of 1765 required colonists to house British soldiers.
• The Townshend Acts (1767-1770) imposed external taxes (tariffs) on imported goods like paper, glass, lead, paint, and tea.
• Colonists boycotted British goods and imported them from elsewhere.
• All Townshend Act taxes were repealed except for the tax on tea.

Tea Act (1773)

• The Tea Act granted the East India Company (EIC) the ability to ship tea directly to the colonies.
• The EIC could sell tea through its own agents.
• Colonists viewed the Tea Act as a means of accepting taxation without representation, despite the tea being cheaper.
• Tea was sent to Boston, NYC, Philly, and Charleston, but only the governor of Massachusetts allowed it to land in Boston.
• The Boston Tea Party occurred on December 16, 1773, with Samuel Adams.
• 342 crates of tea were dumped into Boston Harbor, worth £10,000 (equivalent to $2 million today).
• Parliament responded with the Coercive Acts of 1774 (also known as the Intolerable Acts), targeting Massachusetts.
• The Port of Boston was closed.
• The Massachusetts colonial legislature was stripped of power.
• General Thomas Gage was appointed as the new governor, placing the colony under military control.

First Continental Congress (September 1774)

• Representatives from 12 of the 13 colonies (excluding Georgia) met to discuss the Intolerable Acts.
• It Marked the first time the colonies acted as a unified entity.
• They Agreed to collaborate against England.
• Weapons were sent to Massachusetts leading to the outbreak of the American Revolution.
• General Gage attempted to seize the weapons.
• On April 18, 1775, he dispatched 1,000 soldiers to Massachusetts.
• On April 19, the British army encountered armed Americans in Lexington on their way to Concord.
• The British were unable to find the weapons and marched back to Boston suffering 273 casualties while the Americans lost about 90.
• This event was famously called "shot heard round the world."

American Revolution (April 1775-1783)

• The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia and established the Continental Army.
• George Washington was appointed as the commander of the Continental Army.
• Before Washington assumed command, the Battle of Bunker Hill took place in June 1775.
• American troops positioned themselves on Bunker Hill behind a wall.
• Putnam instructed, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" to conserve gunpowder.
• The Americans retreated after the third British charge due to lack of gunpowder.
• The British suffered more casualties at Bunker Hill than in any other battle of the war.
• The British learned to avoid direct assaults on fortified positions.
• The Americans learned that they could effectively defend themselves with sufficient gunpowder.
• Benedict Arnold proposed capturing Fort Ticonderoga in northern New York to acquire cannons.
• Arnold found Ethan Allen.
• Arnold and Allen captured Ticonderoga.
• Cannons from Ticonderoga were transported to Boston.
• Washington strategically positioned the cannons, leading the British to evacuate Boston in March 1776 and relocate to Halifax.
• Arnold proposed an Invasion of Canada with Montgomery planning to take control and make it the 14th colony.
• Montgomery was killed
• Arnold was shot in the thigh.
• The invasion of Quebec ultimately failed.
• Despite the failure, Washington recognized Arnold's leadership potential.
• By 1776, the American Revolution shifted from fighting for representation to fighting for independence.
• Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" influenced Americans to seek separation from England.
• The Declaration of Independence was approved on July 2, 1776, and celebrated on July 4.
• Thomas Jefferson primarily wrote the declaration.
• Ben Franklin and John Adams served as editors.
• The declaration was partly based on the writings of John Locke.

Battles of 1776

• British forces arrived in New York Harbor after leaving Halifax.
• Washington moved his army to meet them, leading to three battles.
• August 1776: Battle of Brooklyn/Long Island resulted in an American defeat due to a British flanking maneuver.
• September 1776: Battle of Harlem was inconclusive, with both sides claiming victory.
• October 1776: Battle of White Plains led to another American defeat, forcing Washington to retreat across New Jersey to Bucks County.
• Washington's army dwindled from 10,000 men in Brooklyn to 3,900 in Bucks County.
• The British entered winter quarters, ceasing major operations until spring.
• Washington, needing a morale boost, launched a surprise attack on Trenton on December 26, 1776, capturing Hessian mercenaries.
• January 3, 1777: Washington achieved another victory at Princeton.
• These victories were used as propaganda to boost morale and recruit soldiers.

Red Bank (October 17, 1777)

• The British occupied Philadelphia but struggled to supply their troops due to obstacles in the river.
• They evacuated Philadelphia less than a year later.
• Washington pursued the British, engaging them at Monmouth.
• The British army remained in NYC for the rest of the war.
• Benedict Arnold was appointed military governor of Philadelphia after British evacuation.
• Arnold became involved with Peggy, who had loyalist ties.
• Arnold began trading, even with the British, leading to conflict with Congress.
• Washington was forced to reprimand Arnold.
• Arnold began communicating with British commander Henry Clinton through his wife.
• Arnold offered West Point to the British.
• John Andre was sent to meet with Arnold.
• Andre was captured, revealing Arnold's treachery.
• Arnold escaped and defected to the British.
• Andre was hanged as a spy.
• Alexander Hamilton and Andre became friends while Andre was in captivity.

Southern Campaign and Yorktown

• British forces under Cornwallis moved south to South Carolina in 1780.
• August 16, 1780: Horatio Gates' army was defeated at Camden, South Carolina, and Gates abandoned his troops after they rode past him.
• Nathaniel Greene replaced Gates and adopted guerilla warfare tactics, moving to the coast for supplies and then into Virginia.
• Clinton ordered Cornwallis to evacuate Virginia, leading him to Yorktown.
• Cornwallis awaited evacuation by the British navy.
• Washington recognized an opportunity to trap Cornwallis and end the war.
• American and French forces blockaded Cornwallis by land.
• The French navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay, preventing British evacuation by sea.
• Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781, which effectively ended the Revolutionary War.
• The British parliament was shocked by another army surrender.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

• Great Britain recognized American independence.
• The US received all land east of the Mississippi River, south of Canada, and north of Florida.

Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)

• The first government of the US was established under the Articles of Confederation.
• A weak form of government with most power vested in the states.
• The powers it had included the power to conduct war, conduct foreign relations, and issue money.
• The powers it lacked included the power to tax and draft troops.
• Structure only consisted of Congress.
• Each state had one vote regardless of the number of representatives.
• Most bills required 9 of 13 votes to pass.
• Amendments to the Articles required unanimous approval from all 13 states.

Failures of the Confederation Period

• Failure to pay debt due to the inability to tax at the federal level.
• The federal government had to request money from the states.
• Diplomatic failures stemming from the Treaty of Paris 1783.
• The British did not leave NYC until 1784 and maintained forts on the Ohio River.
• The British did not provide compensation for slaves as promised.

Success of the Confederation Period

• Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
• The Northwest Ordinance established a procedure for new states to enter the Union.
• Created the Northwest Territory (land north of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River), from which 3-5 states were to be formed.
• A territory could apply for statehood after reaching 60,000 white male inhabitants.
• Freedom of religion, trial by jury, and prohibition of slavery were guaranteed in the Northwest Territory.

Shay's Rebellion (1786)

• Led by Daniel Shays in Massachusetts.
• Shay's and his men created a militia and marched towards Springfield, Massachusetts, to acquire more weapons.
• Highlighted the weakness of the confederation government.
• It Demonstrated its inability to protect itself from a small group of farmers.
• Rebellion prompted a meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 to address the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention (May-September 1787)

• 55 representatives from 12 of the 13 states (excluding Rhode Island) met in Philadelphia.
• Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were absent.
• George Washington presided over the convention.

Virginia Plan vs. New Jersey Plan

• James Madison wrote the Virginia Plan and Edmund Randolph led.
• William Patterson wrote the New Jersey Plan.
• The Virginia Plan proposed a national government with executive, legislative, and judicial branches and a two-house legislature with representation based on state population.
• The New Jersey Plan proposed maintaining the one-house legislature with equal representation for each state.
• The main point of contention was how slaves would be counted and represented.

The Great Compromise

• On July 2, Washington formed the Grand Committee, including Ben Franklin, to find a compromise.
• On July 16 they agreed to create National government with 3 branches.
• Agreed to give government power to tax and to draft
• agreed to 2 house legislature. Lower house representation based on a state's population, upper house is all equal.
• 3/5 Compromise was a part of it which counted 3/5 of enslaved people toward population and tax purposes.
• Signed on September 17, 1787, by 39 men.
• Ratification required state approval.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

• Debate arose between Federalists, who supported the Constitution and Anti-Federalists.
• Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey ratified the Constitution.
• New Hampshire was the 9th state giving the Constitution approval for it to take effect.
• Rhode Island, North Carolina, Virginia, and New York had not yet ratified.
• Virginia ratified 37-28,.
• New York ratified 30-27.

George Washington's Presidency (1789-1797)

• Washington was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College.
• Inaugurated on April 30, 1789, in NYC.

Bill of Rights

• The first 10 amendments to the Constitution.
• They include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and press, and the right to bear arms.
• Government cannot infringe on nine things.
• The 10th amendment states All power not granted to the federal government is held by the states.

Washington's Cabinet

• Washington created a cabinet of advisors:
  • Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
  • Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
  • Secretary of War: Henry Knox
  • Attorney General: Edmund Randolph

Hamilton's Financial Plan

• As Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton developed a plan to address the nation's $56 million debt.
  • Assumption Bill of 1790: Proposed the federal government assume state debts.
    • Jefferson and Madison opposed.
    • In exchange for Jefferson's support, Hamilton supported the creation of Washington D.C. as the nation's capital.
  • National Bank (1791):
    • Madison considered the bank unconstitutional.
    • Goal was to stabilize the economy by stabilizing the currency.
    • Chartered for 20 years.
  • Revenue:
    • Tariff of 1789: Tax on imported goods.
    • Excise tax: Tax on whiskey.
  • Accept Continentals at face value.

Washington's Domestic Challenges

• 1794: Whiskey Rebellion in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
  • Washington led an army of 13,000 men to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating the power of the federal government.
• Northwest Ordinance of 1787 continued to be implemented.
• 1794: Battle of Fallen Timbers.
• 1795: Treaty of Greenville:
  • Natives ceded Ohio for $10,000 and moved further west into Indiana.

Foreign Policy

• 1793: Neutrality Proclamation
  • Washington declared the US would remain neutral in the war between France and other European countries.
  • This decision was protested by those who felt it betrayed America's alliance with France.
  • Jefferson opposed the proclamation and resigned.
• Tension between the US and Britain remained high.
• 1794: Jay's Treaty
• 1795: Pinckney's Treaty (Treaty of San Lorenzo)
  • Allowed the US to use docks in New Orleans.
• George Washington retired after two terms.
• Died from epiglottis infection.

John Adams' Presidency (1797-1801)

• John Adams was a Federalist, while Thomas Jefferson was a Jeffersonian Republican.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

• Designed to weaken the Jeffersonian party.
• Consisted of three Alien Acts and one Sedition Act.