Foundational Concepts in Ethics

Foundational Concepts in Ethics

• Ethics centers on fundamental ideas to determine right and wrong
• Good: pleasure, virtue, happiness (utilitarianism, Kantian ethics)
• Evil: harm, suffering, vice (focus on avoiding harmful actions)
• Right/Wrong: varying interpretations (deontology, consequentialism)
• Duty/Obligation: moral responsibilities (parent caring for child example)
• Justice/Fairness: treating people equitably, distributing resources justly
• Virtues/Vices: honesty, courage, greed, deceit (character traits for fulfillment)

The Nature of Ethics

• Derived from the Greek word "ethos" (character, custom)
• Examines morality—principles guiding right and wrong behavior
• Incorporates both reflective analysis and real-life application
• Normative: providing standards for behavior (how people should act)
• Universal vs. Relative: some principles apply across cultures, contextual influences exist
• Ethics vs. Morality: philosophical study (ethics) vs. beliefs/practices (morality)
• Rational and Emotional Aspects: logical arguments, empathy, compassion
• Dynamic and Evolving: Ethics adapts with societal progress, scientific advancements, etc.
• Distinct from Other Disciplines: ethics differs from religion, law.

Scope of Ethics

• Ethics covers a wide range of areas, guiding various aspects of life
• Theoretical Ethics:
  • Descriptive Ethics: observes and describes actual behavior
  • Normative Ethics: establishes moral standards
    • Consequentialism: judges actions by outcomes
    • Deontology: focuses on duties and rules
    • Virtue Ethics: develops moral character
  • Meta-Ethics: investigates the nature of ethical terms and judgments
• Applied Ethics: applies ethical theories to real-world issues
  • Medical Ethics: patient confidentiality, euthanasia, abortion
  • Environmental Ethics: sustainability, conservation, climate change
  • Business Ethics: corporate responsibility, fair trade, workplace ethics
  • Legal Ethics: ethical conduct of professionals within the legal system
  • Personal Life Ethics: making decisions, developing virtues
  • Social Life Ethics: issues like justice, fairness, equality
  • Professional Life Ethics: specific guidelines (e.g., medical oath, research ethics).
  • Global Ethics: global issues, human rights, global justice

Descriptive Ethics

• Definition: the empirical study of how individuals and societies behave morally (vs. prescribing moral behavior)
• Objectives of Descriptive Ethics: analyze moral behavior patterns, examine moral beliefs of different individuals/societies, compare societal norms, and support other ethical disciplines.
• Methods used in Descriptive ethics: empirical observation, cross-cultural studies, psychological testing, and historical documentation.
• Key Focus Areas: what people believe, how people act, cultural/historical influences, social norms and deviations.
• Significance: reveals why people sometimes act unethically, promoting cultural awareness, guiding policy-making.

Challenges in Descriptive Ethics

• Subjectivity: researchers' biases influence interpretations
• Ethnocentrism: judging other cultures based on own standards
• Dynamic Nature of Morality: moral beliefs evolve, making timeless conclusions hard

Contributions from Anthropology and Psychology

• Anthropology: studies moral systems, rituals, cultural contexts.
• Psychology: investigates how individuals develop moral reasoning, role of emotions in decisions

Conclusion (Descriptive Ethics)

• Provides a multi-dimensional view of morality by analyzing how people think/act about ethical issues
• Uses various methods to study moral behavior (observations, surveys, historical analysis)

Normative Ethics (Overview)

• Branch of moral philosophy establishing principles for ethical behavior.
• Three major theories in normative ethics are consequentialism (e.g., utilitarianism), deontology (duty-based ethics) and virtue ethic.

Metaethics

• Examines the nature, foundations and meaning of moral values and terms.
• Key questions address the meaning of moral words, the nature of moral values, where moral values originate from, whether morality is universal or relative.
• Two major divisions: Moral Realism (objective morality) and Moral Anti-Realism (subjective morality).

Normative Ethics (Utilitarianism)

• Judges actions solely based on their outcomes—greatest happiness for the greatest number in society.
• Hedonism: Happiness (pleasure) is the only goal and pain (suffering) is evil
• Impartiality: everyone's happiness is equal and important
• Maximization of utility: Actions aim at maximizing overall well-being to the greatest number possible in society

Normative Ethics (Deontology)

• Morality based on following universal moral rules, regardless of consequences.
• Kant's Categorical Imperative:
  • Formula of Universal Law: Act only according to maxims that you can will to become universal laws.
  • Formula of Humanity: Treat people as ends in themselves, never merely as a means to an end.
  • Formula of Autonomy: Act as if you were making universal laws.
• Moral Absolutism: some actions are always wrong regardless of any circumstances
• Duty over consequences (following duties, even when not desirable outcomes are produced).

Normative Ethics (Virtue Ethics)

• Focuses on developing good character traits (virtues).
• Aristotle's Virtue Ethics:
  • Eudaimonia (human flourishing): the ultimate aim of life.
  • The Golden Mean: finding balance between excess and deficiency.
  • Moral Exemplars: learning from role models exhibiting excellent moral character.
• Emphasizes how a person should act and not just the outcome of the action.