Fossil Fuels and Energy Sources

Fossil Fuels and Their Impacts

• The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in northeastern Alaska is a protected area for diverse wildlife.
• A debate exists over whether to allow oil drilling in ANWR due to its ecologically sensitive nature.
• Proponents say drilling in ANWR would create jobs, boost the economy, and enhance U.S. energy independence.
• Opponents of drilling emphasize environmental risks like habitat destruction, oil spills, and climate change contributions.
• Energy sources include fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewables.
• Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) have been dominant due to energy density and infrastructure.
• Nuclear energy from uranium fission is a low-carbon alternative but concerns exist over waste disposal.
• Renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal) are gaining traction due to sustainability and reduced environmental impact.
• Renewable energy resources replenish naturally with lower environmental footprints.
• Nonrenewable sources (coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuels) are finite and take millions of years to form.
• Transitioning to renewables is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring a sustainable energy future.
• Fossil fuel deposits are unevenly distributed, creating economic and geopolitical disparities.
• The Middle East holds the largest oil reserves, with major producers like Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq.
• The U.S. and Russia are major producers of both oil and natural gas.
• China, India, and the U.S. have significant coal reserves.
• Countries with resources influence global energy markets, while import-dependent ones face economic and security challenges.
• EROI measures energy efficiency by comparing the amount of energy produced to the energy invested in extraction and processing.
• Fossil fuels had high EROIs initially, making them attractive, but EROIs are declining as resources become harder to extract.
• Renewable energy sources generally have lower but improving EROIs with technological advancements.
• A higher EROI means a more efficient energy source with greater net energy gain.
• Coal, a sedimentary rock composed of carbon, has been a major source of electricity generation.
• Coal is extracted through strip mining, underground mining, and mountaintop removal, all of which have environmental consequences.
• Major coal reserves exist in the U.S., Russia, China, and India.
• Coal combustion releases carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter, contributing to climate change, acid rain, and respiratory diseases.
• Composed mainly of methane, natural gas is found alongside oil and coal deposits.
• Extracted through conventional drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking), which involves injecting water, sand, and chemicals into rock formations.
• Major reserves are found in the U.S., Russia, Iran, and Qatar.
• Burns cleaner than coal and oil but has environmental concerns such as methane leaks, groundwater contamination, and induced seismic activity.
• Originates from ancient marine organisms buried under sedimentary rock for millions of years.
• Extracted using primary recovery (natural pressure or pumps) and secondary recovery (injecting water or gas to force out more oil).
• Major reserves are located in Saudi Arabia, Canada, the U.S., and Russia.
• Refined into gasoline, diesel, and other essential products.
• Extraction and use contribute to air pollution, oil spills, and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, extracts oil and natural gas from deep underground rock formations.
• High-pressure water, sand, and chemicals create fractures in rock to release trapped hydrocarbons.
• Boosted U.S. oil and gas production but is controversial due to groundwater contamination, seismic activity, and methane emissions.
• Geologist M. King Hubbert proposed "peak oil," predicting that oil production follows a bell-shaped curve, peaking before declining.
• Hubbert correctly predicted the U.S. oil peak in 1970, though fracking temporarily reversed the decline.
• Concerns remain about global peak oil, economic instability, and the urgency of transitioning to alternative energy sources.
• Alternative fossil fuels include oil sands, oil shale, and methane hydrates.
• Oil sands (Alberta, Canada) contain bitumen that must be processed into crude oil.
• Oil shale contains kerogen, which can be converted into oil through heating.
• Methane hydrates are ice-like formations in ocean sediments containing methane, but extraction is difficult and risky.
• These resources extend fuel supplies but have high economic and environmental costs.
• Fossil fuels are finite and contribute to environmental degradation, making alternatives essential.
• Renewable energy reduces greenhouse gas emissions and mitigates climate change.
• Diversification enhances energy security by reducing reliance on imported fuels.
• A stable energy future requires transitioning to cleaner, more sustainable sources.
• Fossil fuel extraction and combustion cause severe environmental and health issues.
• Air pollution from coal and oil burning leads to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and premature deaths.
• Oil spills damage marine ecosystems, while coal mining contaminates water sources and destroys habitats.
• Greenhouse gas emissions drive climate change, causing extreme weather, rising sea levels, and ecosystem disruptions.
• Energy resources shape global politics, trade agreements, conflicts, and alliances.
• Fossil fuel-rich countries, such as OPEC members, influence global oil prices.
• Nations reliant on imports face economic and security vulnerabilities, driving policies for energy independence and diversification.
• Energy policies affect employment, economic stability, and public health, making energy a critical domestic and international issue.
• A coalition of major oil-producing nations, including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Venezuela., OPEC coordinates oil production and pricing to stabilize markets but is often criticized for manipulating prices.
• OPEC's decisions impact global economies, affecting both producers and consumers.
• Governments play a key role in shaping energy production and consumption through regulations, incentives, and taxation.
• Emission controls, renewable energy subsidies, and carbon pricing influence energy market trends.
• International agreements like the Paris Agreement aim to curb greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainability.
• Domestic policies affect energy independence, innovation, and environmental protection.

Conventional Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

• The alternatives to fossil fuels are nuclear power, biomass, and hydroelectric energy.
• These sources provide substantial energy output and have been used for decades.
• This is because they predate newer renewable energy sources like solar and wind, these are considered "conventional".
• They generally produce fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels.
• Fossil fuels are finite resources, extraction and combustion contribute to enironmental degradation.
• Conventional alternatives provide cleaner energy options that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• These energy sources can help bridge the gap between fossil fuel reliance and a fully renewable energy future.
• Diversifying energy sources improves energy security and economic stability.
• EROI measures the energy gained from a source relative to the energy invested in its extraction or production.
• Nuclear power has a relatively high EROI due to its large energy output and long operational lifespan.
• Hydroelectric power also has a high EROI but depends on location and infrastructure costs.
• Biomass has a lower EROI due to energy-intensive harvesting and processing.
• The U.S. remains heavily dependent on fossil fuels, with coal, oil, and natural gas comprising a majority of energy production.
• Despite growth in renewable energy, fossil fuels continue to dominate due to infrastructure and economic factors.
• Energy policies and technological advancements are shifting the energy mix toward cleaner alternatives.
• Nuclear energy is produced through the fission of uranium atoms in a controlled environment.
• Provides a high energy yield with minimal greenhouse gas emissions.
• Faces concerns regarding safety, radioactive waste disposal, and high initial costs.
• Countries like France, the U.S., China, and Russia are major users of nuclear energy.
• France generates over 70% of its electricity from nuclear power.
• Some countries, such as Germany, are phasing out nuclear power due to safety concerns.
• Three Mile Island (1979, U.S.): Partial meltdown led to improved reactor safety regulations.
• Chernobyl (1986, USSR): Catastrophic explosion released radiation; led to stricter international nuclear safety standards.
• Fukushima Daiichi (2011, Japan): Tsunami-induced reactor failure; emphasized the need for better disaster preparedness.
• Radioactive waste remains hazardous for thousands of years and is stored in deep geological repositories or temporary containment facilities.
• Advanced reactor designs, including small modular reactors (SMRs), could improve safety and efficiency.
• Some countries continue to invest in nuclear, while others phase it out due to waste concerns.
• Biomass Energy is derived from organic materials such as wood, agricultural waste, and biofuels.
• It is considered renewable, but combustion releases carbon dioxide.
• Pro's include renewable, reduces waste, can be used in existing infrastructure
• Con include deforestation risks, air pollution, lower efficiency than fossil fuels.
• Hydroelectric Power generates electricity by using flowing water to spin turbines.
• Three main systems: dams, pumped storage, and run-of-river systems.
• Countries with abundant rivers, such as Canada, Brazil, and China, are major producers.
• Pro's: No direct emissions, reliable, long-lasting infrastructure.
• Con's: Disrupts ecosystems, can displace communities, depends on water availability.

New Renewable Energy Sources

• "New" Renewable Energy Sources include solar, wind, geothermal, ocean energy, and hydrogen fuel.
• These sources are rapidly growing in use due to technological advancements and declining costs.
• Feed-in Tariffs & Net Metering are policies that incentivize renewable energy adoption by compensating individuals and businesses for producing excess energy.
• Feed-in tariffs guarantee long-term fixed payments for renewable energy and Net metering allows consumers to sell excess power back to the grid, reducing electricity costs.
• Solar and wind energy have seen exponential growth due to lower costs and government incentives.
• Renewable energy capacity is expanding globally, with major investments in infrastructure.
• Wind and solar EROIs are improving as technology advances and Hydrogen has a low EROI due to the high energy input needed for production.
• Solar Energy converts sunlight into electricity through photovoltaic (PV) cells or concentrated solar power systems.
• Active systems use mechanical devices such as Active vs. Passive Solar, passive systems rely on building design and thermal mass.
• Photovoltaic (PV) panels directly convert sunlight to electricity.
• The three types of solar collection are solar thermal collectors absorb heat for water or space heating, and concentrated solar power (CSP) uses mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver to generate electricity.
• Pro of solar energy is infinite source, low operational costs, no emissions.
• Con's of solar energy is it being weather-dependent, requiring large land areas, energy storage challenges.
• Wind Energy converts kinetic energy from wind into electricity using turbines.
• Offshore wind farms are expanding due to stronger, more consistent winds.
• Turbine efficiency continues to improve with new designs.
• Pro's of wind energy is no emissions, scalable, low operational costs
• Con's of wind energy is intermittent supply, noise complaints, impact on wildlife.
• Geothermal Energy extracts heat from beneath the Earth's surface for electricity generation and direct heating.
• It is used primarily in geologically active regions such as Iceland, the U.S., and the Philippines.
• Pro's for Geothermal Energy is Reliable, minimal emissions, long-lasting.
• Con's for Geothermal Energy is high initial costs, limited to specific locations, potential for land instability.
• Ocean Energy Sources includes tidal and wave energy, as well as ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
• Ocean Energy harnesses energy from the movement of ocean currents and temperature gradients.
• Hydrogen gas is used as a fuel source, often through electrolysis of water.
• Hydrogen fuel cells: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + energy (produces electricity and water as a byproduct).
• Clean when produced from renewables, high energy content, versatile.
• High production costs, storage difficulties, infrastructure challenges.