Forms and Saving of Energy

• Energy is the capacity to do work or create change, present in various forms all around.

Forms of Energy

• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, evident in moving objects.
• Potential energy is stored energy, like that in a stretched rubber band.
• Heat (thermal) energy arises from the movement of particles in an object, such as the warmth from the sun.
• Light energy, which is visible, is produced by sources like the sun and light bulbs.
• Sound energy is created by vibrations traveling through mediums.
• Electrical energy is the energy of moving electrons, powering devices.

Renewable vs. Non-Renewable Energy

• Renewable energy is continuously replenished from sources like sunlight and wind, being environmentally friendly.
• Non-renewable energy is finite, from sources like fossil fuels, and can harm the environment when overused.

Saving Energy

• Conserving energy is crucial for a sustainable future, achieved through simple actions and renewable sources.

Heat and Temperature

• Transferring energy as heat can alter temperature.
• Increasing energy in a substance typically raises temperature; removing energy lowers it.
• Kinetic theory states that temperature relates to the average kinetic energy of particles.
• The hotter a substance, the more its particles move.

Heat Defined

• Heat is energy that flows between objects due to temperature differences.
• The transfer of thermal energy occurs from higher to lower temperature regions via conduction, convection, or radiation.
• Heat is measured in joules (J).

Temperature Defined

• Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of molecules.
• It indicates hotness or coldness, with higher temperatures meaning faster molecular movement.
• Units include Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K), with 0 K as absolute zero.

Kinetic-Molecular Theory

• Matter comprises constantly moving tiny particles.
• Hotter objects have faster-moving particles with greater kinetic energy.
• An object's total thermal energy is the sum of its molecules' kinetic energy.

Heat vs. Temperature

• Heat is the total kinetic energy; temperature is the average kinetic energy per molecule.
• An object with more total kinetic energy (heat) can be colder if its average kinetic energy (temperature) is lower.

Temperature Scales

• Celsius : Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.
• Kelvin : Derived from Celsius; freezing at 273 K, boiling at 373 K.
• Fahrenheit : Freezing at 32°F, boiling at 212°F.
• Kelvin starts at absolute zero (0 K), equivalent to -273.15°C.

Temperature Conversions

• Celsius to Kelvin: K=°C+273
• Celsius to Fahrenheit: F=1.8C+32
• Fahrenheit to Celsius: C=5/9(F−32)

Temperature Examples

• Convert 25°C to Kelvin: K=25+273=298 K
• Convert 20°C to Fahrenheit: F=1.8×20+32=68°F
• Convert 98.6°F to Celsius: C=5/9(98.6−32)=37°C

Temperature, Thermal Energy, and Heat

• Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of molecules, independent of substance amount, measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
• Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy, dependent on both temperature and amount of substance, measured in joules or calories.
• Heat is thermal energy transfer due to temperature differences, measured in joules.

Mass and Thermal Energy Transfer

• Mass and surface area affect how substances cool.
• With equal surface area, a larger mass cools more slowly.
• The larger mass requires more time to release thermal energy.
• With unequal surface area, a larger mass might cool faster if it has a larger exposed surface area.
• Cooling speed is directly proportional to mass, surface area, and temperature difference.

Heat and Brownian Motion

• Heat is energy transferred between objects due to temperature differences, causing constant particle motion.
• Brownian motion is the erratic movement of microscopic particles due to collisions with surrounding molecules.
• Robert Brown first observed Brownian motion.
• Einstein later created a mathematical model.

Brownian Motion Implications

• Brownian motion provided evidence for atoms and molecules.

Heat Transfer Methods

• Conduction, convection, and radiation are three methods of heat transfer.

Conduction

• Conduction is the heat transfer through a substance without substance movement.
• Heat transfers as vibrating particles pass energy to adjacent ones.
• Metals are good conductors due to free electron movement.
• Insulators resist heat transfer.

Convection

• Convection involves heat transfer through fluid movement.
• Hot fluids rise, and cooler fluids sink, creating a convection current.
• Convection is more effective in fluids than solids.
• Rising particles gives off thermal energy to other fluid particles.
• Sinking particles move more slowly, closer together, increasing density.

Convection Examples

• Convection currents transfer thermal energy through molten rock, oceans, and the atmosphere.
• These currents in the atmosphere create winds.
• Land heats and cools faster than water due to lower specific heat.

Radiation

• Radiation is heat transfer via electromagnetic waves.
• It does not require a medium.
• Objects emit and absorb radiation based on temperature and surface properties.
• The sun emits radiant heat that reaches Earth.

Thermal Radiation

• Thermal radiation can travel through air or empty space.
• Objects warm up when thermal energy waves reach them.
• Radiation doesn't need matter to transfer energy.

Everyday Examples of Heat Transfer

• Conduction is felt when touching a metal spoon in hot soup.
• Convection occurs when boiling water in a pot.
• Radiation is felt as warmth from the sun.

Thermal Conductor

• Thermal conductors allow heat to flow through them easily.
• The transfer of thermal energy occurs because of bumping into cooler matter, and giving off thermal energy.
• Metals have freely moving electrons which make them good conductors

Thermal Insulators

• Thermal insulators resists the flow of heat, minimizing heat transfer.
• A vacuum is the best insulator, because it has no molecules.
• Air is a good insulator, but molecules are far apart.

Ecology Defined

• Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment.
• It includes population, community, and ecosystem ecology.

Importance of Ecological Studies

• Ecologists study these interactions to understand the abundance and diversity of life.
• This involves examining physiological aspects, population dynamics, community structures, and biotic and abiotic factors.

Applied Ecology

• Applied ecology addresses real-world challenges by developing effective solutions.
• Ecological relationships enable solutions that benefit the environment and humans.

Ecosystem Dynamics

• Ecosystems are dynamic, changing due to natural forces.
• Understanding these changes helps predict and respond to environmental alterations.

Ecosystem Components

• Abiotic elements include both matter and energy.
• Biotic components include plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and protozoans.
• Life depends on water, energy (food), living space, and climate.
• An ecosystem interconnects living and non-living elements through nutrient cycling and energy flow.

Levels of Ecological Organization

• Species : Genetically related individuals capable of breeding (e.g., Homo sapiens).
• Population : Organisms of the same species interacting in a defined area.
• Community : Populations of different species coexisting in the same area.
• Ecosystem : Living organisms and non-living elements forming a functional unit.

Biosphere and Biodomes

• The biosphere encompasses Earth's living organisms and atmosphere.
• Biodomes are studied to understand interactions, mimic natural ecosystems, and find equilibrium conditions.

Adaptations

• Organisms adapt physically for specific environments.
• Engineers use ecological knowledge to design resilient structures.

Biomes Defined

• A biome is a distinct ecological community of plants and animals in a particular climate.

Common Biomes

• Arctic Tundra
• Tropical Rainforest
• Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forest
• Taiga
• Desert
• Tropical Savannah

Arctic Tundra

• Found across northern Alaska, Canada, and Siberia.
• It has long cold winters and short cool summers.
• Low precipitation (less than 10 inches per year) makes it desert-like.
• Permafrost: permanently frozen ground.
• The surface layer thaws each summer (active layer).
• Limited sunlight.

Arctic Tundra: Animals

• Few animals live year-round.
• Most birds and mammals only use it as a summer home.

Animal Adaptations: Arctic Tundra

• Migration and hibernation are behavioral adaptations.
• Hibernation is a combination of behavioral and physical adaptations.
• Physical Adaptation: Musk Ox grow two layers of fur.

Tropical Rainforest

• Hot, moist biome near Earth's equator, mainly in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
• Annual precipitation ranges from 60 to 160 inches, distributed evenly.
• Constant warmth and abundant moisture.
• Highest biodiversity globally, with over 15 million species.
• Rapid decomposition due to persistent warmth and humidity.
• The rain leaches nutrients into the soil.

Tropical Rainforest: Animals

• Supports unparalleled variety and quantity of animals.
• Small animals are prevalent.
• Utilize tall trees for shelter.

Tropical Rainforest: Plant Adaptations

• Driven by intense competition for food.
• Toucans have long bills to access fruits.
• Sloths exhibit camouflage.

Tropical Rainforest: Plant

• Less than 2% of sunlight reaches the rainforest floor.
• The forest is stratified into canopy, understory, and ground layer.
• Plant survival depends on shade tolerance or reaching sunlight.
• Fungus thrives in the dark.
• The strangler fig relies on birds to deposit its seeds on host trees.

Tropical Savannah

• Tall grasses and occasional trees.
• Experience a 6 to 8 month wet summer and dry winter season.
• Rainfall varies, some get as little as 10 inches annually.
• Climate, soil, animal behavior, and human activities affect.

Tropical Savannah: Animal Life

• Animal diversity depends on location
• Elephant: Strength to access water in baobab tree trunks.
• Animals burrow into the ground when droughts occur

Tropical Savannah: Plant

• Grasses dominate the savanna
• Baobab produces leaves only during the wet season.
• Acacia trees: Long taproots, thorns for defense, and symbiotic relationships with ants.

Taiga Biome

• Long, cold winters
• Short, mild summers
• Below freezing temperature.

Taiga Biome: Flora

• Coniferous trees dominate: spruce, fir, pine, and larch.

Taiga Biome: Fauna

• Wildlife adapts to seasonal extremes.
• Birds: owls, eagles, woodpeckers
• Mammals: Siberian tiger, moose, reindeer, brown bear, and wolverine.

Other Biomes

• Grasslands: Open spaces with few bushes and trees, receiving 10 to 30 inches of rain annually
• Rivers & Streams: Watersheds encompassing streams and rivers draining into larger bodies of water.
• Ponds & Lakes: Bodies of freshwater
• Wetlands: Freshwater habitats, including swamps, marshes, bogs, and flood plains
• Shoreline & Intertidal Zone: Transition areas between oceans and land
• Oceans: Vast and diverse ecosystems that cover three quarters of earth's surface.

Ecosystem Defined

• A dynamic and interconnected system of living organisms within their physical environment.
• Components include abiotic and biotic factors.

Ecosystem Components

• Abiotic: Nonliving elements like sunlight, temperature, soil, water, and gases.
• Biotic: Living organisms including plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and microorganisms,

Food Chain

• A food chain illustrates the feeding relationships among species.
• Energy is transferred with each level.
• These starts with producers that create their own food and passes through primary, secondary and tetriarity consumers.
• It culimates with a top predator.

Food Web

• A food web reflects the intricate interactions among various species.

Components of a Food Web

• Producers make their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• Primary Consumers are herbivores that consume primary producers.
• Secondary Consumers are carnivores that feed on primary consumers.
• Tertiary Consumers are predators that feed on secondary consumers.
• Decomposers break down dead organic matter.

Energy Flow in a Food Chain

• Energy flows from producers to consumers
• The journey of energy can be understood through a food chain.

Energy Pyramid

• Represents trophic levels, illustrating decreasing energy.
• Base (Bottom Layer): Primary Producers (100% energy)
• Second Layer: Primary Consumers (10% energy)
• Third Layer: Secondary Consumers (1% energy)
• Top Layer: Tertiary Consumers (0.1% energy)

10% Energy Transfer Rule

• Only about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next.
• This loss limits the number of trophic levels supported in an ecosystem.

Symbiosis

• Biological interactions between different species.

Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism are some symbiotic relationships.

Mutualism:

• Both participating species benefit.
• Examples: bee and flower mutualism; nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legumes

Parasitism

• One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of the other (host).
• Examples: ticks on mammals; tapeworms in intestines

Commensalism

• One organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed.
• Examples: remora fish and sharks; orchids on trees

Significance of Decomposers

• Decomposers recycle nutrients, decompose waste, and influence energy flow.
• These help maintain the fertility of an ecosystem.
• Prevents build of harmful bacteria.

Introduction: Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis converts sunlight into crucial chemical energy
• Sun, carbon dioxide and water are converted into fuel for plants.

Photosynthesis: Chlorophyll

• At the core of this botanical marvel is chlorophyll, a pigment molecule resembling a solar panel.

Water: Essential Photosynthesis

• Plants absorb water using their roots.

Photosynthesis: Oxygen

• Photosynthesis release oxygen for other organiams living on earth.

Photosynthesis: Significance

• Photosynthesis serves as the foundational process to sustain plant life.

Leaf Structure

• Epidermis: protective layer of pact cells; with cuticle.
• Stomata: pores for gas exchange.
• Mesophyll Tissues: contains chloroplasts.
• Palisade Mesophyll: concentrated group of chloroplasts.
• Spongy Mesophyll: network of air spaces.
• Vascular Bundles: pathways for water; glucose.
• Guard Cells: regulates the opening/closing of stomata.

Photosynthesis Equation

• 6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O2
• Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy → Glucose + Oxygen

Cellular Respiration: Introduction

• Respiration: the process that extracts energy from nutrients like glucose.

Equation: Cellular Respiration

• C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy (ATP)
• Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

Interrelation: Photosynthesis-Cellular Respiration

• Two reciprocal processes.
• Photosynthesis occurs in plant cells and some bacteria
• Cellular respiration occurs in all living cells.

Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

• Photosynthesis: ○ Products: Glucose and oxygen. ○ Reactants: Carbon dioxide and water.
• Cellular Respiration: ○ Products: Carbon dioxide, water, and energy. ○ Reactants: Glucose and oxygen.

Cycling Matter Through Living Things

• Animals use the photosynthesis molecules.
• Plants recycle the CO2 and water back to oxygen.

Human Respiratory System

• The human respiratory system exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and external environment.

Breathing

• Breathe without thinking about it: Breathing is mostly an involuntary action.
• Inhalation: Taking air into the body through the nose and mouth.
• Exhalation: Pushing air out of the body through the nose or mouth.

Diaphragm

• Most important muscle in the respiration process.

Oxygen to Blood Stream

• The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs at alveoli sacs.
• Oxygen goes from alveoli to the capillaries that surround the alveoli.
• At the same time, carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction.

Human Respiratory System: Main Components

• Nose and Mouth: Filters air
• Pharynx (Throat): Pathway for air and food.
• Larynx (Voice Box): Contains vocal cords for speech.
• Trachea (Windpipe): Carries air to lungs.
• Bronchi and Bronchioles: Transports air deeper into the lungs.
• Lungs: Main organs of respiration.
• Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles: Involved in breathing.

Breathing vs. Respiration

• Breathing is the movement of air in and out of the lungs
• Respiration is the exchange of gases to produce energy.

Taking Care of Your Respiratory System

• Avoid Smoking to reduce your risk of delevoping diseases.
• Exercising make your lungs stronger.
• Washing your hands to protects you and others from diseases.
• Avoid being around others when you are sick.

Electricity

• A fascinating and essential form of energy.
• From lighting homes to running electronics.

Electric Current

• The flow of electric charge through a conductor.
• The unit is the ampere (A), measured with an ammeter.

Potential Difference

• Potential difference, often referred to as voltage.
• It represents the energy per unit charge available to move electrons.
• Voltage is measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter.

Electricity Explained

• Initiated by a power source like batteries.
• Electric current requires a flow in a closed circuit.
• Electrons move from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
• Potential difference pushes the electrons along the circuit.

Resistance Explained

• The opposition to the flow of electric charges.
• Measured in ohms.
• Results from electrons bumping into the atoms of matter.
• Reduces the amount of electrical energy that is transferred.
• The electrical energy is absorbed by atoms and changed to other forms of energy.

Affecting Factors of Resistance

• Factors: the type of material, its size, its length, and its temperature.
• A wide wire has less resistance than a narrow wire.
• A longer wire has more resistance than a shorter wire.
• A cooler wire has less resistance than a warmer wire.

Importance of Resistance

• Is either helpful or unhelpful depending on the circumstances.
• Resistance is a drawback because current needs to be transmitted through wire.
• Resistance is unseful if the electricity's goal to produce heat or light.

Conductors

• Materials that let electricity pass through them easily.
• Low resistance to the flow of electrical energy.
• Metals such as copper are good conductors.

Superconductor

• A material is a superconductor that has no resistance to electrical current at temperatures near absoute zero.
• Recently-discovered high-temperature superconductors function at temperatures as high as –133°C.
• Superconducting wires can carry as much as 100 times the amount of electricity of ordinary copper or aluminium wires of the same size.

Insulators

• Electrical insulators do not allow electricity to pass through them.
• Materials that have low resistance to electric current are called electric conductors.
• Plastic, wood, glass are all good insulators.

Circuit

• Electric current requires a path to carry charges, and this path is a circuit.
• A circuit comprises: ○ power source ○ load ○ wires ○ connections
• A switch controls the flow of electyric current.

Open and Closed Circuits

• Open Circuit: The electric switch is up preventing the flow and creating a break.
• Closed Circuit: The electric switch is down, completing a connection, which create an unbroken flow of electric current.

Circuits: Power Source

• Higher voltage has high power.

Series Circuits

• Electric charges flow in one direction.
• A break will stop from operating.

Parallel Circuits

• Electric current flows through different paths.
• Other currents can keep working when others fail.
• Risky to cause a short circuit, creating a potential for fire.

Circuit Diagrams

• Used in electrical instructions.
• Ammeter measures for current.
• Voltmeter measures voltage.
• Resistor transfer electricty into energy.

Ohm's Law

• Ohm's Law provides a crucial relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.
• V=I×R V: Voltage (measured in volts) I: Current (measured in amperes) R: Resistance (measured in ohms)

Application of Ohm's Law

• Calculating Voltage: V=I×RV=I×R
• Calculating Current: I=VR I=VR
• Calculating Resistance: R=VI R=VI

Ohm's Law Explained

• Ex1: V V=2 A×5 Ω=10
• Ex2: I =12 V/ 3 =4 A

Electric Power

• Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred or converted in an electric circuit.
• P=IV

Electric Power: Bird / Squirrel Voltage Example

• Birds: Has high resistance, limiting current flowing through the bird
• Squirrel: When grounded it decreases resistance allowing the higher current to flow through the squirrel.

Biomimicry Unit: Enduring Statements

• Design principles from nature can lead to a sustainable future.
• Nature inspire the way we engineer solutions, we can more efficiently protect our way of life.

Biomimicry Unit: Essential Vocabulary

• biomimetics, biomimicry, brainstorm, imitation, design, sustainable design

Biomimicry Defined

• Biomimicry: Nature-Inspired Innovation or simply put Nature-Inspired Innovation
• Uses nature models to solve human problems.

Principles: Biomimicry

• Observation and Imitation: Biomimicry begins with keen observation of biological entities and their functions in ecosystems
• Applying Nature's Designs: Nature has evolved optimized designs. Biomimicry applies these designs to practical solutions.
• Sustainability and Efficiency: Natural systems are inherently sustainable, and biomimicry seeks to replicate this sustainability in human-made technologies.

Biomimicry Examples

• Velcro: Inspired by burrs
• Bullet Train : Inspired by the beak of the kingfisher bird.
• Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Inspired by the lotus leaves
• Spider Silk: Inspired by the elasticity strength of spider web.

Animal Inspired: Inventions

• Aeroplanes modelled after birds shapes.
• Fish-inspired scales that slide over each other to enable the morphing aeroplane.
• Boat hulls designed after the shapes of Fish.
• Torpedoes that swim like tuna.
• Underwater glue
• Water filters

Plant Inspired: Inventions

• Hook and loop material (Velcro®) inspired by cockleburs.
• Solar cells inspired by plant leaves (photosynthesis, capturing energy from sunlight).
• A wind-driven planetary rover design that maximise drag learned from the tumbleweed.
• Self-Cleaning surfaces
• Reduce drag propellers

Janine Benyus: Nature's 7 Rules.

• Nature runs on sunlight
• Nature uses only the energy it needs
• Nature fits form to function
• Nature recycles everything
• Nature rewards cooperation
• Nature banks on diversity
• Nature demands local expertise Nature curbs excesses from within Nature taps the power of limits