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Questions and Answers
What is the primary purpose of the respiratory system in mammals?
What is the primary purpose of the respiratory system in mammals?
Which structure is primarily responsible for gas exchange in the lungs?
Which structure is primarily responsible for gas exchange in the lungs?
How does inhalation occur during breathing?
How does inhalation occur during breathing?
Which organisms utilize a tracheal system for respiration?
Which organisms utilize a tracheal system for respiration?
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What role does the cardiovascular system play in respiration?
What role does the cardiovascular system play in respiration?
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What is the primary function of tRNA during translation?
What is the primary function of tRNA during translation?
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What is a defining characteristic of a point mutation?
What is a defining characteristic of a point mutation?
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Which of the following describes recombinant DNA?
Which of the following describes recombinant DNA?
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What is the primary impact of DNA methylation on gene expression?
What is the primary impact of DNA methylation on gene expression?
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How many chromosomes are found in a typical human somatic cell?
How many chromosomes are found in a typical human somatic cell?
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What distinguishes a haploid cell from a diploid cell?
What distinguishes a haploid cell from a diploid cell?
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What characterizes a karyotype?
What characterizes a karyotype?
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What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?
What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?
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What is the role of the diaphragm during inhalation?
What is the role of the diaphragm during inhalation?
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Where does gas exchange actually occur in the respiratory system?
Where does gas exchange actually occur in the respiratory system?
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Which of the following best describes the sequence of airflow through the respiratory system?
Which of the following best describes the sequence of airflow through the respiratory system?
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What is the primary purpose of the respiratory system?
What is the primary purpose of the respiratory system?
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Which statement about breathing mechanisms in mammals is accurate?
Which statement about breathing mechanisms in mammals is accurate?
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What occurs in the lungs during exhalation?
What occurs in the lungs during exhalation?
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How do birds achieve efficient respiratory gas exchange?
How do birds achieve efficient respiratory gas exchange?
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What mechanism in fish gills maximizes oxygen uptake?
What mechanism in fish gills maximizes oxygen uptake?
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Which of the following components is part of the upper respiratory system?
Which of the following components is part of the upper respiratory system?
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What role do the ribs play during breathing?
What role do the ribs play during breathing?
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Study Notes
Respiration (Breathing)
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Organs of the respiratory system in mammals:
- Upper respiratory system: Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx
- Lower respiratory system: Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs (including alveoli)
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Purpose of the respiratory system:
- To facilitate gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out) essential for cellular respiration
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Gases involved in gas exchange & location:
- Oxygen (O2) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
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How the ribs and diaphragm help us breathe:
- Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts and flattens, ribcage expands, creating negative pressure, drawing air into the lungs
- Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, ribcage contracts, pushing air out of the lungs
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Path of airflow:
- Nose/Mouth → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli
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Respiratory & cardiovascular systems working together:
- Oxygen delivery: Respiratory system brings oxygen into the lungs; it diffuses into the blood; cardiovascular system transports it to tissues for cellular respiration
- CO2 removal: Cardiovascular system carries CO2 from tissues back to the lungs for exhalation
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Breathing mechanisms in different organisms:
- Mammals: Use lungs, diaphragm, and ribcage
- Birds: Use a unique system of air sacs and unidirectional airflow
- Fish: Use gills for oxygen uptake from water, employing countercurrent exchange
- Insects: Use a tracheal system of spiracles and air tubes directly to tissues
Circulation
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Purpose of the circulatory system:
- To transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body
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Organs and tissues involved:
- Heart, blood, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and lymphatic vessels
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Chambers and valves of the heart:
- Four chambers: Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
- Four valves: Tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, mitral valve, aortic valve
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Order of heart chamber contractions:
- Atria contract first, followed by the ventricles
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Order that blood travels through the body in humans:
- Right atrium; tricuspid valve; right ventricle; pulmonary valve; pulmonary arteries; lungs; pulmonary veins; left atrium; mitral valve; left ventricle; aortic valve; aorta; body tissues; veins
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What causes the heartbeat sounds:
- The "lub-dub" sound is caused by the closing of heart valves:
- "lub" = atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral) closing
- "dub" = semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) closing
- The "lub-dub" sound is caused by the closing of heart valves:
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Three types of blood vessels:
- Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart
- Capillaries: Perform exchange at tissues
- Veins: Return blood to the heart
Gas Exchange and Blood Vessels
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Which blood vessels perform gas exchange and where?:
- Capillaries; found in the lungs and body tissues
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Which blood vessels have a pulse?:
- Arteries
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Why gas exchange matters:
- Cells need oxygen for cellular respiration; expel carbon dioxide, which is a waste product
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Chambers with oxygenated and deoxygenated blood:
- Oxygenated blood: Left atrium and left ventricle
- Deoxygenated blood: Right atrium and right ventricle
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What is blood pressure and where is it highest?:
- Blood pressure is the force of blood against vessel walls; highest in arteries.
- Normal reading: 120/80 mmHg
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Blood pressure during systole or diastole:
- Blood pressure is higher during systole (ventricular contraction)
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Difference between open and closed circulatory systems:
- Closed: Blood is confined to vessels, more efficient (e.g., humans, birds)
- Open: Blood flows freely in body cavities (e.g., insects)
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Difference between 2-circuit and 1-circuit circulatory systems:
- 2-circuit: Pulmonary circuit sends blood to the lungs; systemic circuit sends blood to the body (e.g., humans)
- 1-circuit: Blood flows in a single loop(e.g., fish).
Gene Expression
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What is DNA?:
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the molecule containing genetic instructions
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What are the nitrogenous bases in DNA?:
- Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G)
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What are the complementary base pairs?:
- A binds with T; C binds with G
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What does "DNA is antiparallel" mean?:
- DNA strands run in opposite directions. One strand runs 5' to 3'; the other runs 3' to 5'
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What do we actually do with our DNA?:
- DNA contains the instructions for making proteins and controlling cell processes; We express our genes to produce proteins; proteins then perform various functions in the body
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What is a gene? What do genes provide?:
- A gene is a sequence of DNA providing instructions for making a specific protein (which determines its function)
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How are genes, DNA, and chromosomes different from each other?:
- DN A is the molecule containing genetic information
- A gene is a segment of DNA coding for a trait or protein
- Chromosomes are structures made of DNA and protein that carry genes.
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What is RNA?:
- RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is similar to DNA but single-stranded and uses ribose as its sugar instead of deoxyribose
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How is RNA different from DNA?:
- Uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
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What are the 2 steps of Gene Expression?:
- Transcription: DNA is used as a template to make messenger RNA (mRNA).
- Translation: mRNA is translated into a protein by ribosomes in the cytoplasm
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Where does transcription occur?:
- Transcription occurs in the nucleus
Transcription
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Describe the three steps of Transcription:
- Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the gene
- Elongation: RNA polymerase reads the template strand and builds the mRNA strand
- Termination: RNA polymerase reaches the termination sequence; the mRNA is released.
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What does RNA polymerase do?:
- RNA polymerase reads DNA's template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction.
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What is the coding strand, template strand, and which one is used for transcription?:
- The coding strand has the same sequence as the mRNA (except that RNA uses uracil, not thymine)
- The template strand is used as a template for mRNA synthesis during transcription.
RNA Processing
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What occurs during RNA processing?:
- Capping: A 5' cap is added to the mRNA
- Polyadenylation: A poly-A tail is added to the 3' end
Translation
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Where does translation occur?:
- In the cytoplasm, specifically on ribosomes
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What is a codon?:
- A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.
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How many amino acids are added to the protein for each codon?:
- Each codon corresponds to one amino acid
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How many bases are required for a certain sequence of amino acids?:
- 3 bases per amino acid
tRNA in Translation
- What is the role of tRNA in translation?: tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome and matches its anticodon with the mRNA codon during translation.
Mutations and Genetic Engineering
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What is a mutation?:
- A change in the DNA sequence that can alter gene function.
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Types of mutations:
- Point mutations (substitutions, insertions, deletions)
- Frameshift mutations (due to insertions or deletions)
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Do mutations always affect the resultant protein's amino acid sequence?:
- Not always; some mutations are silent and do not change the amino acid sequence
- What is recombinant DNA?: Recombinant DNA DNA has been artificially combined from different sources
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What are GMOs?:
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose DNA has been altered through genetic engineering.
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What is DNA methylation? What does it do?:
- DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group to DNA; typically suppresses gene expression.
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What is genetic engineering?:
- Genetic engineering involves manipulating an organism's DNA to achieve desired traits.
Cell Cycle and Mitosis
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Distinguish between DNA, chromosomes, chromatin, genome, genes, DNA, and base pairs:
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DNA: The molecule containing genetic information.
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Chromosomes: Condensed structures made of DNA and protein.
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Chromatin: The uncoiled, relaxed form of DNA.
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Genome: The complete set of genes or genetic material in an organism.
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Genes: Segments of DNA that code for proteins.
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Base pairs: Pairs of nitrogenous bases (A-T, C-G) in DNA.
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What is the ultimate goal of the cell cycle?:
- To produce two genetically identical daughter cells
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What is the difference between a diploid and a haploid cell?:
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diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes
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haploid cells have one set of chromosomes
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In Mitosis, is the DNA in daughter cells the same as the DNA in the original parent cell?:
- Yes, the DNA is identical in the daughter cells to the parent cell.
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What happens in the S, G1, G2, and G0 phases?:
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(Details provided in the notes as they appear in the document)*
Apoptosis and Mitosis Process
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What is apoptosis?:
- Programmed cell death
- What does IPMAT stand for?: -(Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).
- What are the four steps of mitosis?:
- (details provided in the notes as they appear in the document)*
- What is cytokinesis?:
- (details provided in the notes as they appear in the document)*
- What is a cleavage furrow?:
- (details provided in the notes as they appear in the document)*
DNA Replication
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What is DNA replication?: What is produced?:
- DNA replication is the process of copying DNA to produce two identical strands.
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When does it occur in the cell cycle?:
- During the S phase of the cell cycle
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What does semiconservative mean?:
- Each new DNA molecule consists of one old (parental) strand and one newly synthesized strand
- What enzymes are involved in DNA replication and what do they do?
- (details provided in the notes as they appear in the document)*
DNA Replication Details
- Helicase: unwinds the DNA
- Primase: synthesizes RNA primers
- DNA polymerase: adds nucleotides; to the growing strand
- Ligase: seals the gaps between fragments.
- Replication fork: A Y-shaped region where DNA is unwound and replicated
- Leading strand: Continuously synthesized in the same direction as the replication fork.
- Lagging strand: Synthesized in fragments (Okazaki fragments) opposite the direction of the replication fork.
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