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Genetics

• Gregor Johann Mendel was born in 1822 in the Austrian Empire, he came from a poor farming family.
• He is known as the Father of Modern Genetics.
• Mendel went to the University of Vienna for his teaching diploma.
• He was a monk, botanist, and teacher.
• Having a father who bred fruit trees sparked his interest in studying plants, particularly garden peas.
• He lived at the monastery and became a priest at 25 years old, also studied many sciences, taught Latin, Greek and math to other students.

Characteristics of Living Things

• Species Characteristics are features that all members of a species have in common.
• Individual characteristics are the traits that make a member of a species different from another.

Factors Influencing Individuality

• Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes.
• The environment can affect an individual's growth.

Mendel's Study of Green Peas

• Peas have a short breeding time and could be cross-pollinated.
• Mendel had 34 varieties of pea plants and grew and tested at least 28,000 pea plants.
• Heredity is an organism's set of characteristics it gets from its parents.
• Genetics is the study of heredity.

Mendelian Genetics - Early Experiments

• Pea plants were used because they grow quickly, reproduce by self-pollination, and possess easily recognizable characteristics.
• Pollination can be controlled in this group of plants with minimal work.
• Garden peas produce enough offspring to conduct a study.
• Mendel crossed pea plants, one tall and one short.
• "P(parentis)" stands for the parent generation.
• Offspring of the crossed are called hybrids.
• He called the hybrids the F1 generation, where F means "fillius," meaning son.
• Traits do not blend; one trait showed up and one vanished.
• Mendel crossed the results of the F1 generation and named the next generation F2.
• Some traits that had vanished reappeared in F2, in approximately 1/4 of the plants.

Conclusions from Experimental Results

• Inheritance of each trait is determined by units or factors passed on to descendants unchanged.
• A trait may not show up in an individual but can still be passed on to the next generation.
• Individual inherits one such unit from each parent for each trait.

Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles

• Dominant (Aa) expresses its trait with just one copy.
• Recessive (aa) requires two copies to show its trait.
• Alleles are variants of a gene found at a specific location on a chromosome, influencing traits like eye color, hair color, and blood type.
• A trait is a characteristic that differentiates one from others.

Principles of Mendelian Genetics

• Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness: If an organism inherits different alleles for the same trait, one allele may be dominant over the other.
• Principle of Segregation: Each gene, an organism receives one allele from each parent; alleles separate when reproductive cells are formed.
• Principle of Independent Assortment: Some genes segregate independently; this law describes how different pairs of alleles for different traits assort independently during gamete formation.
• Phenotype: form of trait it displays, appearance
• Genotype: genetic makeup of a single/group of organisms regarding a single or set of traits
• Homozygous: If both recessive and both dominant alleles ex: AA, aa
• Heterozygous: If it has mixed pair of alleles ex: Aa
• Monohybrid cross: A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
• Dihybrid cross: A cross between individuals that involves two pairs of contrasting traits.
• Punnett Square: Used by biologists to predict probabilities of the outcomes of genetic crosses.

Probability

• A possible future event might occur in any given instance of the event
• Homo/Homo-mono: all the same
• Homo/Hetero-mono: ½ homo, ½ hetero
• Hetero/Hetero: 1 homo dominant, 2 hetero, 1 homo recessive
• General Dihybrid Crosses: 9:3:3:1

Color Blindness

• Genetic condition with no cure.
• Red/Green Color Blindness is the most common.

Integumentary System

• Body's outer layer, consisting of skin, nails, hair, glands, and nerves.
• Acts as a physical barrier protecting against bacteria, infection, injury, and sunlight.
• Helps regulate body temperature and allows feeling of skin sensations.
• Skin is the largest and heaviest organ.

Layers of the Skin

• Epidermis: Top layer made up of melanocytes, keratinocytes, and Langerhans cells. Gives skin its color and provides a waterproof barrier.

Layers of Epidermis

• Statum Basale is the deepest epidermis layer where new skin cells develop, and contains keratinocyte stem cells that produces keratin. Contains melanocytes that produce melanin and is responsible for the pigment of the epidermis
• Statum Spinosum layer consists of keratinocytes held together by sticky proteins desmosomes and helps skin be flexible and strong
• Stratum Granulosum's keratinocytes have granules and keratohyalin granules help bind keratin filaments together. Creates a barrier that keeps water and other substances from passing the epidermis
• Stratum Lucidum is between stratum granulosum and stratum corneum and is a thin, transparent layer of keratinocytes that are becoming flatter and reducing friction between the 2 layers
• Stratum Corneum is the outermost layer. Contains keratinocytes that becomes corneocytes and consists of fats to keep water from easily entering/leaving body. Corneocytes are strong, dead cells that protect from harm, abrasions, light, heat and pathogens
• Dermis is middle and thickest layer that contains sweat, oil glands, and hair follicles

Layers of the Dermis

• Reticular Dermis is the bottom layer with a net-like structure of elastin and collagen fibers surrounding reticular dermis and supports skin's overall structure, allowing it to move/stretch
• Papillary Dermis is much thinner than reticular dermis, extends to the basement layer of the epidermis, and forms a strong bond connecting interlocking fingers
• Hypodermis is the bottom and fatty layer of the skin that is the subcutaneous layer/ superficial fascia, helps insulate body

Hair

• Keeps heat in our body, and is made out of protein called keratin.
• Eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes from dirt and water.
• Hair Shaft is part of hair see, touch and style
• Hair Follicle is the tube-like structure that keeps hair in your skin
• Hair Bulb is located under the skin and ensures is responsible for hair growth.
• Dandruff causes white/yellow flakes in the scalp and hair shaft, also known as seborrheic dermatitis.
• Head lice are tiny, crawling insects that live in a person's head hair.
• Hirsutism is excessive hair growth in people assigned female at birth.
• Hair loss is a most common condition that affects the hair, some are temporary, and some are permanent.

Hair Loss

• Alopecia Areata- packets of hair loss caused by an autoimmune disease
• Anagen Effluvium- loss of hair during growth phase, often occurs during medical treatments like chemotherapy
• Androgenic Alopecia- baldness in both genders, based on genetics
• Telogen effluvium- loss of hair during its rest phase, shows up months after body goes through something stressful or hormonal changes
• Traumatic Alopecia- Hair loss due to damage to scalp from styling

Digestive System

• Organs break down food to absorb nutrients used for energy, cell repair, and growth.

Digestive Process

• Ingestion: involves mastication/chewing. Salivary glands along the tongue help moisten and lubricate food before being pushed down into the food pipe.
• Mixing and Movement: Process of lubricating and manipulating food and pushing it down through the food pipe and into the stomach.
• Secretion: Stomach, small intestine, liver, and pancreas secrete enzymes and acids to aid the process of digestion, breaking down food particles into simple components and easily absorbable components.
• Digestion: process of converting complex food particles into simpler substances in the presence of enzymes and acids secreted by different digestive organs.
• Nutrition: starts in the small intestine where most nutrients and minerals are absorbed, excess water in the indigestible matter is absorbed by large intestine
• Excretion: removing indigestible substances and waste-by-products from the body through defecation.

Parts of the Digestive System

• Mouth: Digestive process starts in the mouth through chewing, saliva has an enzyme that begins to break down starches in our food.
• Esophagus: Transports food entering the mouth through to the stomach.
• Stomach: Holds the food and mixes with acid and enzymes to break down food into a liquid or paste.
• Small intestine: Absorbs nutrients and water by breaking down the food and fluids consumed.
• Large intestine: Absorbs water and salts from indigestible substances and gets rid of any waste products leftover.
• Rectum: Holding area for stool; when full, it pushes stool out of the body through anus.

Keeping Digestive System Healthy

• Drink enough water- helps food flow more easily
• Get fiber- enough fibers, keep your digestive system working as it should
• Add probiotics- good bacteria that fight bad bacteria in the system
• Eat mindfully- slow down and chew food thoroughly
• Avoid alcohol and smoking- can increase amount of acid in stomach and cause heartburn

Respiratory System

• Organs and structures in the body that allows you to breathe, including lungs, mouth, nose, and tube-like structures that connect them.
• Breathing is a process of moving air into and out of the lungs.
• Inspiration is inhaling. The primary purpose is to bring oxygen into the lungs.
• Expiration is exhaling. The primary purpose is to release carbon dioxide from the body.

Oxygen Travel

• Air enters nose/mouth cavity, passes through pharynx and larynx, and the trachea carries air down into bronchi
• Bronchi divides into smaller bronchioles, leads to clusters of alveoli in the lungs
• Oxygen diffuses into bloodstream, CO2 diffuses out of bloodstream into the alveoli
• Diaphragm relaxes, pushing air out of the lungs, air exits trachea, larynx, and nose/mouth

Parts of the Respiratory System

• Lungs are the main organ, responsible for making oxygen available to the body and remove gasses like CO2
• Nose and Nasal Cavity: Primary entry point for air, nasal cavity filters incoming air removing dust and particles before it reaches the lungs
• Mouth and Oral Cavity: Alternate entry point for air, oral cavity plays a minor role in respiration but essential for speech and swallowing
• Sinuses: air-filled spaces in the skull, produces thin mucus to trap small elements and pollutants, humidifying air before it reaches the lungs
• Pharynx/Throat: muscular tuber in the middle of the neck, connects nasal cavity, mouth to trachea. Pathway for air and food.
• Epiglottis: flap-like structure, prevents food from entering trachea during swallowing
• Larynx(Voicebox): Tough, flexible part of the respiratory tract, connects pharynx to the trachea(windpipe), allow air to pass while preventing food and drink from blocking airways
• Trachea/Windpipe: Long, U-shaped hollow tube that connects larynx to bronchi. Enable airflow to and from the lungs
• Bronchi: main airways of the lungs, has tiny hair-like structures(cilia), help move out mucus out of lungs, keeping bronchi clean and healthy
• Bronchioles: small, branching air passages inside lungs. Serve as conduits for air, connecting larger bronchi to alveoli
• Alveoli: there are 300 million alveoli, tiny air sacs located at the end of bronchioles, and plays crucial roles in gas exchange during breathing.
• Respiratory Diseases:
  • Asthma, Tuberculosis, Pneumonia, Lung Cancer

Caring for the Respiratory System

• Avoid or quit Smoking
• Avoid secondhand smoking
• Limit outdoor air pollution exposure
• Reduce indoor air pollution
• Be physically active
• Eat well and stay hydrated
• Maintain good hygiene
• Get annual checkups
• Stay up to date with your Vaccinations

Excretory System

• Biological system that secretes unnecessary waste from the body fluids of an organism

Excretory System Focuses

• Maintaining Osmotic Balance
• Removing Metabolic Waste
• Skin excretes water & other substances
• Liver detoxification and produces urea
• Lungs excretes co2

Nephron

• Functional unit of the kidney
• Process waste products from the urine
• Millions are present inside the kidneys
• Glomerulus
• Cluster of capillaries
• Main filtering unit of the kidney

Filtrate

• The fluid that is the product of filtration

Creating Urine Parts

• Bowman's Capsule is part of the nephron that forms a cup-like sack surrounding the glomerulus and filters blood
• Proximal Tubule is a segment of the nephron in kidneys that helps reabsorption of filtrate (glucose, amino acids, phosphate, citrate)
• Loop of Henle is part of the long U-shaped portion of the tubule, it conducts urine within each nephron and helps reabsorb salt and water
• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) is the nephron segment between the loop of henle and collecting tubule, and it regulates extracellular fluid volume and homeostasis
• Collecting Duct receives and concentrates urine from DCT

Urine Flow

• Bowman's Capsule -> Proximal Tubule -> Loop of Henle -> DCT -> Collecting Duct -> Ureter -> Bladder -> Urethra

Excretory System's Organs

• Kidney cleans toxins and waste out of your blood, and is bean shaped-structure
• Ureter - Pair of thin muscular tubes
• Extends from the renal pelvis
• Tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
• Bladder is a hollow, spherical organ and stores the urine
• Urethra is the tube that lets urine leave your bladder, located in your body's pelvic region

Circulatory System

• Vessels carry blood away from and towards the heart.
• Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells.
• Heart pumps blood around and contains valves to prevent backflow of blood.

Parts of the Heart

• Vena Cava is a large vein that brings DeOx blood from the other areas, and is superior & interior
• Right Atrium receives DeOx blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle
• Right Ventricle pumps DeOx blood to the lungs
• Pulmonary Artery transports DeOx blood from right side of heart to lungs for oxygenation
• Pulmonary Vein carries oxygenated blood from lungs to heart
• Left Atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs and pumps it to left ventricle
• Left Ventricle receives oxygenated blood from Left Atrium and forces oxygenated blood through aortic valve
• Aorta delivers oxygenated blood to your body The Valves In Heart
• Pulmonary Valve helps manage blood flow and controls the flow of DeOx blood from heart to lungs
• Tricuspid Valve opens and ensures that blood flows in the correct direction, located between R.V and R.A
• Mitral Valve is a “Bicuspid valve” that regulates blood flow from L.A into L.V
• Aortic Valve is between L.V and Aorta, ensures that oxygenated blood does not flow back into L.V

Blood Flow

• Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Valve → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve) → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta