Exploring Morality
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Questions and Answers

What concept did Alpha Go struggle with when tested on a smaller board?

  • Beating a child player
  • Training on 21,000,000 games
  • Understanding objects, actions, numbers, and space
  • Generalizing to other games (correct)

    • What was the key factor in Alpha Go's victory over world champion Lee Sedol?

  • Understanding objects, actions, numbers, and space
  • Generalizing to other games
  • Fast gameplay for a professional go player
  • Training with significantly more games than Lee Sedol (correct)

    • What approach did Google's DeepMind take to improve its software's performance?

  • Adding more ingrained rules
  • Increasing training time for the AI
  • Generalizing to multiple games
  • Subtracting rules and biases (correct)

    • What type of reasoning involves making probabilistic generalizations from observation?

    <p>Inductive reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is risk present according to the text?

    <p>When future events occur with measurable probability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Expected Value Theory (EV) involve according to the text?

    <p>Calculating the expected value of various possible outcomes to determine the best course of action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between normative and descriptive decision making according to the text?

    <p>Normative is what you should do, descriptive is what you actually do</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Expected Utility Theory (EUT), what does utility represent?

    <p>A subjective measure of happiness or satisfaction from an outcome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Homo economicus refer to in economic theories?

    <p>Individuals who act as 'perfectly rational' agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Prospect Theory assume about the weighting of losses and wins?

    <p>Losses are weighted more than a win, leading to loss aversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Diminishing Sensitivity imply in decision making?

    <p>Low probabilities are typically given more weight than they would receive using expected utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are considered the fathers of behavioral economics, proposing theories like prospect theory?

    <p>Tversky &amp; Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of Mind involve?

    <p>Understanding and ascribing mental states to others, including false beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Inverse Planning involve?

    <p>Going backwards from seeing an action to beliefs and desires</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Gigerenzer emphasize in decision making?

    <p>The use of heuristics and good intuition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Dennett's theory of mind, how is an agent treated to determine their mental states?

    <p>As rational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What early signs of theory of mind development are shown by monkeys and infants?

    <p>Through their behavior and reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, which concept proposes that there is no metaphysical difference between humans and machines?

    <p>Dennett's argument</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept is described as a fundamental aspect of human social cognition in the text?

    <p>Naïve utility calculus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what are the two perspectives on emotion?

    <p>Experiencing and perceiving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the subject of the debate discussed in the text regarding emotions?

    <p>Whether emotions are innate or not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what influences moral values and beliefs?

    <p>Families, communities, and societies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the text, what is one of the different ways of perceiving emotions?

    <p>Theory of mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory proposes that emotions are recognized in others through the recognition of one's own emotions?

    <p>Frank's Theory of Moral Sentiments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The text discusses the role of what type of anger in influencing behavior?

    <p>Moral anger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text specifically mention about individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

    <p>The expression of emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what does Frank's Theory of Moral Sentiments propose about emotions?

    <p>Their role in overcoming problems of defection and commitment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The text introduces the concept of 'constructing emotions' attributed to whom?

    <p>Lisa Feldman Barret</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emphasized in the text as important in managing and understanding emotions?

    <p>Emotional intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Dictator Game, what surprising behavior did humans exhibit?

    <p>Generosity in sharing resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the Third Party Punisher game?

    <p>To allow outside participants to punish dictators and enforce social norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do smaller scale societies lack third party punishment?

    <p>Due to the absence of enforced norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the emergence of morality, according to the text?

    <p>A complex interaction of reasoning, emotion, theory of mind, and innate structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory proposes an innate brain structure guiding morality?

    <p>Contemporary theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do studies of morality in babies suggest?

    <p>An innate sense of morality and preference for helpers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What insight do ethical dilemma scenarios like the crying baby case provide?

    <p>Insight into different moral perspectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Josh Greene's Dual Systems Theory of Moral Judgment, what influences moral judgment?

    <p>Emotional and rational systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Comparative Cognition explore?

    <p>The study of cognition in other animal species and shared core cognitive abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four broad approaches to morality mentioned in the text?

    <p>Virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, and contractualism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the Trolley problem and Footbridge problem elicit?

    <p>Different moral responses attributed to emotional influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do various iterations of the Dictator Game reveal?

    <p>Surprising human generosity and the use of punishment to deter cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal is capable of using tools and adapting them to better suit their purpose?

    <p>Crows</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animals have distinct communication systems, using calls to represent semantics?

    <p>Vervet monkeys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure is considered a pioneer in artificial intelligence?

    <p>John McCarthy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animals are capable of recognizing individual humans and differentiating between food and non-food items?

    <p>Octopuses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animals can associate words with specific objects and learn new words through fast mapping and exclusion?

    <p>Dogs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle is responsible for unexplainable AI systems and their ability to find hidden patterns in data?

    <p>Deep learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a mathematical model representing a biological neuron, consisting of inputs fed into a mathematical function that outputs a specific value?

    <p>Perceptron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal was able to learn how to open a box from observing others?

    <p>Octopus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who co-authored the term 'artificial intelligence'?

    <p>John McCarthy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method is used to adjust weights of each neuron in an AI to achieve more accurate results?

    <p>Backpropagation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a group of neurons grouped together, all fed output from a previous group of neurons?

    <p>Hidden layers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal showed evidence of 'fast mapping' by associating unfamiliar words with unfamiliar objects through exclusion?

    <p>Dog</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the majority of an octopus' neurons located?

    <p>In its arms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a complete specification of the state of the universe at time t?

    <p>Determinism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which AI experiment was used to determine how a deep learning neural network recognized images using specific features?

    <p>Deep Dream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the method of adjusting weights of each neuron in an AI to achieve more accurate results?

    <p>Backpropagation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal was able to distinguish known words from unknown words in an acoustic signal, even when prosody is controlled?

    <p>Dog</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where was the term 'artificial intelligence' coined?

    <p>Dartmouth College</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Alpha Zero trained on?

    <p>10,000,000 games</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Google's DeepMind find happened to its software when rules were subtracted?

    <p>Performance improved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the result when Alpha Go was tested on a smaller board?

    <p>It performed worse than on a regular board</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reasoning involves making probabilistic generalizations from observation?

    <p>Inductive reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of decision making involves calculating the expected value of various possible outcomes to determine the best course of action?

    <p>Expected Value Theory (EV)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is risk present according to the text?

    <p>When future events occur with measurable probability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes normative decision making from descriptive decision making?

    <p>Normative decision making involves what you should do, while descriptive decision making involves what you actually do</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the intentional strategy reliably predict?

    <p>The behavior of 'true believers'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do humans start assuming that others make decisions to maximize utility?

    <p>Early childhood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the debate about regarding emotion?

    <p>Whether emotion is solely innate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emotional intelligence primarily concerned with?

    <p>Managing one's own emotions and understanding others'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is involved in perceiving emotions, according to the text?

    <p>Abductive reasoning and theory of mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does emotional intelligence involve?

    <p>Managing one's emotions and understanding others'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary influence on moral judgments, according to the text?

    <p>Families, communities, and societies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the construction of emotions?

    <p>Emotions are constructed by the brain based on experiences and stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is involved in emotion recognition, according to the text?

    <p>Feeling emotions ourselves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is necessary for forming complex societies, according to the text?

    <p>Human cooperation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the intentional strategy reliably predict?

    <p>The behavior of 'true believers'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the intentional strategy reliably predict?

    <p>The behavior of 'true believers'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal is capable of distinguishing known words from unknown words and learning new words through fast mapping and exclusion?

    <p>Dogs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who were the key figures in AI mentioned as pioneers in the field?

    <p>John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the term used to describe the unexplainable decision-making and recognition processes displayed by Deep Patient and Deep Dream in AI?

    <p>Deep learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the birthplace of the term 'AI', gathering top scientists to discuss the field's future?

    <p>The Dartmouth AI Conference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mathematical models does AI use to adjust weights for accurate results?

    <p>Neurons, hidden layers, and backpropagation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animals are capable of recognizing individual humans and adapting to captivity?

    <p>Octopuses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principles are included in cognitive science?

    <p>Materialism/naturalism, reduction computation, and determinism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What raises concerns about understanding and generalization in AI, as exemplified by the skydiving hot dog example?

    <p>The cost of interpretability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does AI operate using to adjust weights for accurate results?

    <p>Neural networks and backpropagation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did researchers aim to teach AI to learn like, drawing parallels between human instincts and AI learning processes?

    <p>Children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do jays modify based on past experiences and observations, suggesting cognitive complexity?

    <p>Caching strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do octopuses adapt to and recognize, indicating their high intelligence?

    <p>Individual humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the key approaches to morality mentioned in the text?

    <p>Virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, and contractualism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Doctrine of Double Effect allow?

    <p>Causing harm as a side effect of bringing about a good result</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory suggests that emotional and rational systems influence moral judgment?

    <p>Josh Greene's Dual Systems Theory of Moral Judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Paul Bloom's research emphasize regarding the role of cultural development and rational insights in shaping unselfish morality?

    <p>It highlights an innate sense of morality in babies as well as the role of cultural development and rational insights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do comparative cognition studies focus on?

    <p>Cognition in other animal species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What core cognitive abilities are shared between humans and animals, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>Representation of others' knowledge but failure to represent belief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ethology explore?

    <p>Adaptive behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do studies of morality in babies suggest about innate morality?

    <p>They suggest an innate structure guiding morality, as babies prefer helpers over hinderers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Trolley problem elicit?

    <p>Different moral responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Paul Bloom's research highlight regarding the emergence of morality?

    <p>An innate sense of morality in babies, influenced by cultural development and rational insights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do nonhuman primates fail to represent, according to the text?

    <p>Belief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the role of emotions in overriding rationality?

    <p>Emotions and punishment can override rationality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory involves calculating the expected utility of possible outcomes for decision making?

    <p>Expected Utility Theory (EUT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does utility represent in decision making theories?

    <p>Subjective measure of satisfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who emphasizes the use of heuristics and good intuition in decision making?

    <p>Gigerenzer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of Mind involve?

    <p>Understanding and attributing mental states to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who proposed theories like prospect theory and are known as the fathers of behavioral economics?

    <p>Tversky &amp; Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does loss aversion refer to in decision making?

    <p>Preference for avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Homo economicus refer to in economic theories?

    <p>Individuals acting as perfectly rational agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Prospect Theory by Kahneman introduce?

    <p>Adaptation level, diminishing sensitivity, and loss aversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Planning fallacy involve?

    <p>Tendency to underestimate the likelihood of unexpected events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of Mind involve?

    <p>Understanding and attributing mental states to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Gigerenzer, what is emphasized in decision making?

    <p>Use of heuristics and good intuition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation on rational behavior involving underestimating the likelihood of unexpected events?

    <p>Planning fallacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Expected Utility Theory (EUT), what is utility?

    <p>A measure of satisfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Homo economicus refer to in economic theories?

    <p>Individuals acting as perfectly rational agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory introduces concepts such as adaptation level, diminishing sensitivity, and loss aversion?

    <p>Prospect Theory by Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are known as the fathers of behavioral economics, proposing theories like prospect theory?

    <p>Tversky &amp; Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of mind involve?

    <p>Understanding and attributing mental states to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Inverse Planning involve?

    <p>Going backwards from action to beliefs and desires</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who argues that there is no metaphysical difference between humans and systems in predicting behavior?

    <p>Dennett</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Shari Liu's study, when does Theory of Mind develop?

    <p>Within the first year of life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Planning fallacy involve?

    <p>A tendency to underestimate the likelihood of unexpected events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emphasized by Gigerenzer in decision making?

    <p>Use of heuristics and good intuition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What tendency do people with ADHD have in decision making, according to the text?

    <p>Deficient/risky decision making and being more loss averse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation on rational behavior according to the text?

    <p>Planning fallacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Expected Utility Theory (EUT), what does utility represent?

    <p>A measure of happiness or satisfaction from an outcome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Homo economicus in the context of decision making theories?

    <p>An individual acting as a perfectly rational agent in economic theories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory introduces concepts such as adaptation level, diminishing sensitivity, and loss aversion?

    <p>Prospect Theory by Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known as the father of behavioral economics, proposing theories like prospect theory?

    <p>Tversky &amp; Kahneman</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of Mind involve?

    <p>Understanding and attributing mental states to others, including false beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Gigerenzer, what does he emphasize in decision making?

    <p>The use of heuristics and good intuition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Theory of Mind involve, according to the text?

    <p>Understanding and attributing mental states to others, including false beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Inverse Planning involve?

    <p>Going backwards from action to beliefs and desires to treat an agent as rational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the text, what does Homo economicus refer to?

    <p>Individuals acting as perfectly rational agents in economic theories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Planning Fallacy, as described in the text?

    <p>A limitation on rational behavior, involving a tendency to underestimate the likelihood of unexpected events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Expected Utility Theory (EUT), according to the text?

    <p>Calculating the expected utility of possible outcomes for decision making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of Prospect Theory by Kahneman, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>Introduces concepts such as adaptation level, diminishing sensitivity, and loss aversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Human Morality, Cooperation, and Social Norms

    • 2012 study shows humans' natural instinct to cooperate, demonstrated by pooling resources resulting in more products
    • Various iterations of the Dictator Game reveal surprising human generosity and the use of punishment to deter cheaters
    • Third Party Punisher game allows outside participants to punish dictators, enforcing social norms
    • Smaller scale societies lack third party punishment, requiring enforced norms for larger societies to function
    • Morality arises from a complex interaction of reasoning, emotion, theory of mind, and innate structure
    • Four broad approaches to morality: virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, and contractualism
    • Trolley problem and Footbridge problem elicit different moral responses, attributed to emotional influence
    • Traditional theory suggests humans are taught morality, while contemporary theory proposes an innate brain structure
    • Studies of morality in babies suggest an innate sense of morality, preference for helpers, and innate structure guiding morality
    • Ethical dilemma scenarios like the crying baby case provide insight into different moral perspectives
    • Dual Systems Theory of Moral Judgment by Josh Greene suggests emotional and rational systems influence moral judgment
    • Comparative cognition explores the study of cognition in other animal species and the shared core cognitive abilities between humans and animals

    Animal Cognition and Artificial Intelligence: Key Points

    • Chimpanzees perform better on working memory tests than humans.
    • Crows are capable of using tools and adapting them to better suit their purpose.
    • Monkeys and dogs can understand unconscious/subconscious cues.
    • Syntax, belief representation, and theory of mind are unique to specific animals such as chimpanzees.
    • Vervet monkeys have distinct communication systems, using calls to represent semantics.
    • Dogs can distinguish known words from unknown words, even when prosody is controlled.
    • Scrub jays modify their caching strategy based on prior experience of pilfering and being observed caching.
    • Domestic dogs and border collies can associate words with specific objects and learn new words through fast mapping and exclusion.
    • Octopuses are highly intelligent, capable of recognizing individual humans and differentiating between food and non-food items.
    • Key figures in AI include John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky, pioneers in artificial intelligence.
    • Cognitive science principles include materialism/naturalism, reduction computation, and determinism.
    • Deep learning in AI is responsible for unexplainable AI systems and their ability to find hidden patterns in data.

    Understanding Human Morality and Comparative Cognition

    • In smaller scale societies, there is minimal third-party punishment or indirect reciprocity, necessitating enforced norms for larger societies to function.
    • Humans tend to be more generous than necessary in short periods, but emotions and punishment can override rationality.
    • Third-party punishment games are powerful tools for studying social norms, and human morality arises from a complex interaction of reasoning, emotion, theory of mind, and innate structures.
    • Key approaches to morality include virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, and contractualism, each with a distinct focus on moral rules and obligations.
    • The Trolley problem and Footbridge problem elicit different moral responses, and the Doctrine of Double Effect allows causing harm as a side effect of bringing about a good result.
    • Traditional theories suggest humans are taught right from wrong, but contemporary theories propose an innate brain structure guiding morality, supported by studies of morality in babies.
    • Studies of morality in babies suggest an innate structure guiding morality, as babies prefer "helpers" over "hinderers."
    • Different moral theories provide conflicting perspectives on scenarios like the crying baby case, highlighting the debate on innate morality.
    • Josh Greene's Dual Systems Theory of Moral Judgment suggests emotional and rational systems influence moral judgment, supported by fMRI investigations.
    • Paul Bloom's research highlights an innate sense of morality in babies, but also emphasizes the role of cultural development and rational insights in shaping unselfish morality.
    • Comparative cognition studies cognition in other animal species and ethology explores adaptive behaviors, with core cognitive abilities shared between humans and animals.
    • Nonhuman primates can represent what others know but fail at representing belief, raising questions about what makes humans special in terms of cognition.

    Decision Making Theories and Theory of Mind

    • Expected Utility Theory (EUT) involves calculating the expected utility of possible outcomes for decision making.
    • Utility is a subjective measure of happiness or satisfaction from an outcome.
    • Homo economicus refers to individuals acting as "perfectly rational" agents in economic theories.
    • Planning fallacy is a limitation on rational behavior, involving a tendency to underestimate the likelihood of unexpected events.
    • Prospect Theory by Kahneman introduces concepts such as adaptation level, diminishing sensitivity, and loss aversion.
    • Gigerenzer emphasizes the use of heuristics and good intuition in decision making.
    • People with ADHD tend to have deficient/risky decision making and are more loss averse than those without ADHD.
    • Tversky & Kahneman are known as the fathers of behavioral economics, proposing theories like prospect theory.
    • Theory of mind involves understanding and attributing mental states to others, including false beliefs.
    • Inverse Planning involves going backwards from action to beliefs and desires to treat an agent as rational.
    • Dennett argues that there is no metaphysical difference between humans and systems in predicting behavior.
    • Shari Liu's study shows that Theory of Mind develops within the first year of life, as infants expect preferences based on observed actions.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on human morality, cooperation, social norms, animal cognition, and artificial intelligence with this challenging quiz. Explore key studies, theories, and findings in these fascinating fields.

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