Evolution of Theory: 16th-17th Century

• Theory was initially understood as sight or spectacle, emphasizing watching, seeing, and observing during the 16th to 17th centuries.

Second Phase (17th Century)

• Theory evolved into speculation or a projected idea, linked to a perception.
• Newton speculated the force of gravity on Earth affects all objects as an example.

Third Phase (17th Century)

• Theory became associated with schemes of ideas and processes.
• Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to prove Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
• It also explained tides and the trajectories of comets, accounted for the precession of equinoxes, and eradicated doubts about the heliocentric Solar System

Fourth Phase (Mid-17th Century)

• Theory was understood as an explanatory scheme or a systematic explanation of practice.
• It implies meanings and ideas.
• Simple observation progresses into more intricate activities.
• It incorporates speculation, processing of ideas, and systematic explanation of observed phenomena
• Once these stages are completed, theory connects observations with explanations.

Modern Definitions of Theory

• Doctrine or Ideology involves a set of principles guiding how things should be.
• Model or System involves an idealized representation.
• Explanatory Scheme describes tangible conditions of reality.
• Common Usage refers to an ideal condition with uncertain outcomes.
• "I have a theory about that” describes an explanatory perspective on an event or condition.
• Theory and practice are interconnected
• Theory is a conceptual framework and proposed ideas.
• Practice is application and action based on theory.

Aristotle's Distinctions on Actions

• Theoria is contemplation aimed at establishing knowledge.
• Poiesis is poetic or artistic creation with the goal of production.
• Praxis is a mode of making where theory informs the work, leading to action.
• Theory is defined as "a system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedures devised to analyze or explain the nature or behavior of a specified set of phenomena”.
• Theory involves contemplation, inquiry, and understanding.

Medieval Theories

• Suger's architectural innovations exemplified the medieval desire to get closer to the "one true light."
• His emphasis on height and light in churches reflected his passion for divine illumination.
• Christian symbolism in church design should be viewed as more than just aesthetic beauty
• The grandeur of Gothic architecture was intended to vividly display liturgical and theological principles.
• The unmatched symbolic beauty of the Medieval Church served as a timeless illustration of how sacramental signs and instruments convey God's grace.

Three Portals of Notre Dame Cathedral

• Center Portal depicts the Last Judgment.
• Left (North) Portal is known as the Portal of the Virgin.
• Right (South) Portal is known as the Portal of St. Anne.
• Chimeras symbolize the vulnerability of humans outside the Church or religion.
• They represent the servants of darkness waiting to lure people into temptation.
• Every element in a Gothic cathedral had deeper meaning beyond mere decoration.
• The stained glass windows were designed to convey divine illumination, symbolizing God's presence.
• The Rose Window was an artistic representation of religious concepts, particularly the Holy Trinity

Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879)

• French architect, theorist, and writer known for his impact on modern architecture.
• He wrote extensively on architectural theory, influencing the conceptual tools of 20th-century architecture.
• He believed that structure and function were the sole determinants of architecture.
• He is considered one of the first theorists of modern architecture.
• He rejected architecture as a speculative or purely aesthetic system.
• He advocated for a scientific approach to architecture based on research and observation.
• He studied medieval churches and fortresses, leading to extensive knowledge of medieval construction techniques.
• His theories were heavily influenced by Gothic architecture, which he viewed as the pinnacle of structural and functional logic.
• He promoted rationalism in architecture, emphasizing that form should follow function.

Key Works and Contributions

• The architectural writings included Detailed Encyclopedia of French Architecture, Dictionary of French Architecture, and Discourses on Architecture
• His restoration projects included Notre Dame Cathedral, Basilica of Saint-Denis, Mont Saint Michel, and La Sainte Chapelle.
• He believed that Gothic architecture was a logical, functional expression rather than a mere revival style.
• He viewed the Gothic cathedral as an ideal system of proportion and construction.
• He advocated for a "skeleton form" in architecture where structural elements clearly defines the building's integrity.
• Buttresses and flying buttresses support vaults, transferring loads to the ground efficiently.

Innovation in Materials and Techniques

• He explored the adaptation of Gothic architectural principles to modern materials such as iron and metal
• His vaulting systems for large spaces incorporated diagonal and vertical supports, utilizing both compression and tension.
• He integrated wrought-iron elements into Gothic forms, enhancing structural integrity and aesthetic appeal
• He proposed that iron structures could parallel Gothic systems, influencing future framed building techniques.
• His ideas profoundly affected architects like Auguste Perret and Frank Lloyd Wright
• He advocated for emphasis on structural honesty, the integration of form and function, the use of new materials in rational construction, and the rejection of purely ornamental design
• His writings contributed to the Modernist movement, reinforcing the relationship between engineering and architecture.
• He designed several unbuilt projects incorporating Gothic principles with modern materials.
• The Concert Hall Design proposed the use of brick, stone, and cast iron to create a structure expressing Gothic ideals in a modern context.
• He looked at organic structures for inspiration in architectural design like leaves and animal skeletons
• He challenged the dominance of Classical architecture, advocating for a construction-based approach.
• His radical contrasts included Gothic vs. Classicism, Construction vs. Ornamentation, Truth vs. Falsehood in design, and Engineering vs. Architecture as pure art
• His vision laid the foundation for the development of modern structural architecture.
• His groundbreaking theories on architecture, restoration, and material innovation continue to influence contemporary architectural thought, making him a pivotal figure in the evolution of modern architectural principles.

Renaissance Theories: Leon Battista Alberti

• Leon Battista Alberti (February 14, 1404 – April 20, 1472) was a polymath of the Renaissance: architect, poet, linguist, humanist author, philosopher, and priest
• He is considered the epitome of a Renaissance man.
• His father was Lorenzo Alberti, a wealthy merchant involved in banking and commerce in Florence.
• The Alberti family played a significant role in Florence's economic success during the 14th century.
• He studied mathematics under his father's guidance
• He continued studies at the University of Bologna, also pursuing law.
• He is recognized as the most important art theorist of the Early Renaissance.
• His influence on architecture and art theory was foundational for later Renaissance figures like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Renaissance Architecture Principles

• Alberti was a leading figure in Renaissance architecture, where he sought to redefine classical principles.
• He emphasized harmony, proportion, and mathematical precision in architecture.
• He believed architecture should be based on scientific and mathematical principles, not just aesthetics.
• Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola was influenced by Alberti's work.
• He sought to simplify the rules of architectural proportion for better understanding

Vignola's Contribution

• He developed a systematic approach to column proportions.
• Traditional classical architecture used irrational numbers in column height calculations.
• Vignola introduced a more practical system based on building dimensions.
• The ratio of pedestal: column: entablature = 4:12:3.
• Total height of an order is 19 sections (or 15 if no pedestal)

Contribution

• Developed a module system using the radius of the column base as a standard unit
• Developed formulas for calculating architectural elements, but did not rigidly enforce them
• Villa Giulia was designed for Pope Julius III in Rome
• Alberti introduced the first church with an oval dome, a feature that later became a Baroque signature.
• His architectural theories significantly influenced later architects, also influencing those who shaped Baroque architecture

Legacy and Influence on Modern Architecture

• Alberti's work bridged the gap between classical architecture and Renaissance innovations.
• His emphasis on mathematical precision, proportion, and order remains influential in modern architectural thought.
• He helped codify architectural principles that served as the foundation for later theorists and architects.
• His treatises laid the groundwork for future explorations in structural logic, form, and design efficiency
• His ideas on mathematical precision, harmony, and classical inspiration helped shape the way buildings were designed, setting a precedent for both Renaissance and modern architecture.

20th Century Architectural "Isms": Classicism / Neo-Classicism

• Neoclassical ("new" classical) architecture is inspired by the classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome.
• It is a broad design approach that encompasses several distinct styles. Characteristics of Neoclassical Architecture include:
• Symmetrical shape
• Tall columns that extend the full height of the building
• Triangular pediment
• Domed roof
• Types of Neoclassical Buildings include:
• Temple Style - which is inspired by ancient temples, often featuring a peristyle (continuous line of columns surrounding the building).
• Palladian - named after Andrea Palladio, characterized by a central arched window flanked by two narrow rectangular sections.
• Classical Block - A vast rectangular or square building with a flat roof, classical detailing, and repetitive patterns of arches or columns.
• Notable Examples: Howard Building – Downing College, Cambridge (1987) and Quinlan Terry, Richmond Development, London (1989)
• Modernist architecture focuses on functionality and rejects unnecessary ornamentation
• Influenced by machines and abstract art.

Characteristics of Modernism

• Materials and functional requirements dictate the design
• Machine aesthetic
• Emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines
• Ornamentation is either minimal or integrated into the structure
• "Form follows function"
• Simplified forms with elimination of unnecessary details
• Expressed structure
• TWA Airport, John F. Kennedy Airport by Eero Saarinen (1962)
• Calatrava's City of Arts and Sciences
• Calatrava's Lyon-Saint Exupéry Airport Turning Torso
• The Sydney Opera House

Features of the Sydney Opera house

• Multivenue performing arts center adjacent to the CBD and the Botanic Gardens, near the Harbour Bridge
• Features a modern expressionist design with a series of large pre-cast concrete shells.
• The design process started in the 1950s, and construction was completed in 1972
• Postmodernism rose out of a general worldwide loss of confidence in the International Modern Movement and a realization of its inadequacies, such as the lack of historical reference that could provide a feeling of continuity.
• It has been described as theatrical and as trying to create instant or neo-history.
• Examples include Staatsgalerie Extension, Stuttgart – by James Stirling and AT&T Headquarters/Sony Building, New York – by Philip Johnson.
• Definition: "Pure form has been contaminated, transforming architecture into an agent of instability, disharmony, and conflict.”
• Seeks to arrive at new forms of expression turning away from structural restraints.
• It turns away from functional and thematic hierarchies, favoring often non-rectangular, fantastic, and seemingly disjointed designs.

Notable Examples

• Dancing House, Prague
• Weisman Art Museum, Minneapolis
• Seattle Center
• Parc de la Villette, Paris – by Bernard Tschumi
• Originated in Belgium, then spread to France and other parts of Europe

Geological and Material Resources for Art Nouveau

• Extensive use of metals, ironworks, steel, and fabrics.
• Industrialization led to use of metals for infrastructure: steam machines, trains, railways, train stations, canals (growth in communication and transport).
• Abundance of materials facilitated the production of glass.

Technological Advancements

• Industrialization allowed machines to easily form wrought iron and glass into intricate designs.
• It incorporated use of hyperbolas (open curves with two branches) and parabolas (U-shaped symmetrical curves) in architectural designs. Inspirations:
• Japonism: Influence of Japanese art and design in Western Europe (19th century) specifically graphic design and art, porcelain, furnishings & jewelry.
• Arts and Crafts Movement inspired by William Morris, emphasizing handcrafted details and natural forms.

General Details of Ornamental Characteristics of Art Nouveau

• Asymmetrical shapes
• Fluid, curved forms with a whiplash effect
• Curved glass
• Swirling tendrils and botanical-like embellishments
• Mosaics and stained glass
• Japanese motifs
• Exposed ironwork
• Ferro-vitreous architecture (combination of iron and glass)
• Parabolic curves
• Used a liberal combination of ironwork, glass, ceramic & brickwork.
• Featured: terra cotta (baked earthen Clay) , colorful glazed tiles & mosaic patterns.

Color Palette & Emphasis of Art Nouveau

• Emphasized earthy tones resembling nature (browns, yellows, blues, greens) on the female form..

Notable Structures & Architects

Belgium

• Hotel Tassel (1892) - Victor Horta which is considered First Complete Art Nouveau building.
• Features open floor plans and intricate ironwork. France Castel Béranger – Hector Guimard:Notable for its decorative whiplash and sinuous lines. Paris Métro Entrances (1900) Hector Guimard. Designed two types of metro station entrances:
• With glass roofs
• Without glass roofs, featuring floral motifs. Spain (Modernismo, known as Catalan Art Nouveau)
• Casa Batlló, Barcelona (1904), Antoni Gaudí, also known as the House of Bones. Features curved facades, glasswork, and intricate ironwork.
• Casa Milà, Barcelona – Antoni Gaudí: Known for undulating stone facade and wrought-iron balconies.
• Basilica de la Sagrada Familia – Antoni Gaudí: Started in 1882, expected completion 2026. Considered a masterpiece of Modernisme architecture.
• Park Güell, Barcelona - Antoni Gaudí: The Park is known for colorful mosaics and organic architectural forms. Germany (Jugendstil): Named after the Munich magazine Die Jugend (“Youth").
• Used a floral phase (heavily influenced by Japanese applied arts and prints) & a More abstract phase (geometric and simplified designs). Key architects were Henry Van de Velde & Mikhail Eisenstein
• Austria (Secessionstil known as Vienna Secession)
• Founded as a Reaction Against Conservative Artistic Institutions in Vienna (late 19th century)
• The movement Emphasized Artistic Freedom and New Visual Expressions.
• Sezession Exhibition Building (1897–98 – Joseph Maria Olbrich) which featured Joseph's motto: " To Every Age its Freedom."
• The notable Artist of the movement was Gustav Klimt who produced A Frieze. Italy (Floreale aka Liberty): Named after Arthur Lasenby Liberty, owner of the Liberty department store. Examples of this style include decorative facades, curving structures, and floral motifs. Famous Art Nouveau Architects:
• Victor Horta – Hotel Tassel, Belgium • Hector Guimard – Paris Métro entrances, France • Henry van de Velde – School of Art and Applied Arts, Germany • Antoni Gaudí – La Sagrada Familia, Park Güell, Casa Batlló, Casa Milà, Spain • Art Nouveau movement ended over 100 years ago, influence remains in multiple ways:
• Modern architecture and design
• Contemporary interpretations of natural and fluid forms
• Preserved Historical Landmarks Art Nouveau continues to inspire modern artistic and architectural movements, blending nature and industry seamlessly

Art Deco

• Art Deco is a Visual Arts and Architecture Style that Emerged in the 1920s
• also known as "Style Moderne”.
• Originated in France just Before World War 1
• It Became Popular in Western Europe and the u.s. During the 1930's
• The Name Art Deco was Derived From the Exhibition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs ET industriels Modernes, Held in Paris in 1925

Influences on Art Deco

• Art Nouveau
• Cubism
• The Bauhaus Serge Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes
• Egyptian and Early Classical Art
• Nature-Inspired Decorative Elements
• Common Motifs Include

1. Nude Female Figures
2. Animals
3. Foliage 4, Sun Rays

Architectural Character of Art Deco

- Geometric Forns Influenced 
- Fauvism with Use of Bright Colors
- Egyptian Architecture with Ziggurat Style Structures
- Emphasis on Industrial Materials
- Metallic Finishes
- Stylized Designs- Simplified Symmetrical Structures and	Modern.
- Zggurat Termination - Ziggurat Style Structures.
- Chevron & Zggurat Motifs
- Sunburst Motif
- Decorative Versus Streamlines Architectural Elements
- Two 

Timeline of Art Deco

1. Early Art Deco (1920) Decorative Elements Featuring 2-D Flat Representations of Human Forms Flowers, Animals, and Geometric Shapes Inspired by Cubism
2. Streamlines of Art Deco (1930s) Simplified Streamline Styles for Commercial Use

Notable Art Deco Buildings

Chrysler Building (New York) by William Van Allen & Completed in 1930 Designed 1046 foot tall w/ Steel Spire with Sunburst Motifs & Eagle Gargoyles Also Geometrical Facade & Interior Designs

Delano Hotel (Miami) Built - 1947, Robert Swartzburg Renovated - 1995, Phillips Starck, Stremlined Mordem Esthetic Eastern Columbia Building (Los Angeles) Architect was Claud Beelman Building Completion 1930 Striking Tuquoise Terra-Cotta Exterior and Notable with Use of Bold Colors and Geometric Motifs

Guardian Bulding (Detroit) Architect: Wirt C Rowland Completion: 1929

• As Know as "Cathedral of Finance" because of its Ornate Design (Interior and Exterior) Features Elaborate Mosaics Murals, and Stained Class Streamline Moderne Art Deco An International Style of Art Deco That Emerged in the 1930s Inspired by Aerodynamic Design, Particularly Ocean Liners Features a Sleeker More Minimal Aesthetic Characterized by - Pastel Colors and Horizontal Emphaisis

Key Characteristics

• Curved corners • Porthole windows • • Glass block windows Flat roofs • Stucco in pastel colors • Horizontal emphasis • Influence of Cubism

• Art Deco remains one of the most influential architectural styles, blending modernity with artistic elegance
• Its impact can still be seen today in various buildings, interiors, and decorative arts worldwide.
• Architectural style that reflects the prevailing design principles of a particular time.
• That style includes form, method of construction, materials, and vernacular characteristics.
• Influences are Religious changes, Cultural shifts, Technological advancements & political factors, Modern Architecture Characteristics Emphasis is placed on form over ornament with Structure-focused rather than revivalist Design.

Important Key Characteristics

- Methodical Use of Space
- Generous wUse of Glass	
- Horizonal Massing
- Clean Lines + Well-defined Rectangular Forms

Four Main Styles During this Period

International Style, Expressionist Architecture, Brutalist & New Formailist Architecture and Googie Architecutre

• Materials Used at the Time included Wood, Brick, Stone & Reinforced Concrete This brought an Evolution of Modern Architecture because of 3 reasons Shift from Classical -Transition from from straight classical details to liberal interpretations.
• Seen in art deco and revivals New Matieritals & Construciton Techniques
• Industrial revolution enabled mass construction
• 3, demand for new builds.
• New buildings, railway station & warehousess
• Technological envouraged innovation in building

Eiffel Tower

• Landmark exemple of the "transition" build
• In celebration of the French Revolution
• Deisgned by Gustav Efiffel - as a bridge and a technological masterpiece in the period

Key Pioneers of the Time Period

• Louis Sullivan
• Frank Lloyd Wright Pillars of Modern Architecture Style
• Philip Johnson
• Lews, mies der rone
• le Corbusier Walter Gropius

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT: PILLAR OF EARLY MODERN ARCHITECTURE

• Heavily influenced by his mentor, Louis Sullivan

• His innovative designs contributed significantly to the development of modern architecture He began educationally in 1885: Graduated from Madison High School And followed with enrollment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, later dropped out at the year 1887 to move to Chicago

• Then, started work/internship in 1887, as Hired as a draftsman at the architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee.

• Then continued to work on family projects such as the All Souls Church and Hillside House Scho

• Became and apprentice in 1888, where did not get along, Wright referred to Sullivan as "Lieber Meister" - who gave Wright responsibilities for the building designs

Key Characteristics of his designs

• Signed a five-year contract, which made a lot purchased lots in Forest of Chicago His design signature became Geometrical Massing with horizonal window binds etc
• At an experimental phase in career - Established his own practice at top the floor of Schiller Building

Prarie School Architecture Characteristics

Horizontal Lines Integration With Surronding Structures - Flat hipped roofs with Broad Eaves + Integrated winodws A Key Prairie House = Winslow House to display the geometric features, and the Rollin Furbesk to diplay elements to that design - Built during the 1900's to diplay this new style

Key Architecture Works

• 1905 unity temple, the first modern building.
• Falling water home in 1937 with cantelivered stream integration + limestone designs Taliesin House was wright homes for the world
• Known for his work with Prarie Designs.
• Designed Unity Temple Known for his work with Prarie Designs"

Louis Sullivan Overview

• Considered "Father of Skyscrapers" and Father of Modernism""
• Coined the phrase "Form ever follows Funtion"
• Key Trinity of Architecture Design included- Functionality, Form + Beauty
• Also a Studied Architecture at Mit Contributions to Skyscaper Devlopment
• Lower Construction Costs due to Mass Production Skyscrapers where a symbol

Key Characteristics

• Used geometric Shapes Guaranty and Audiotirum Designed + Founded Adler's Firma

Main Legacy

• Remiaed design through modern work