Evolution of Homo Species and Early Stone Tools

Evolution of Homo Species

• In the Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 million years ago), hominin evolution occurred amidst cooler and drier conditions.
• The Pleistocene epoch spanned from 2.6 million years ago to 11,000 years ago.
• Climate was variable, with warm/wet (interglacial) and cold/dry (glacial) cycles
• The period saw new connections and separations of populations, and new cultural adaptations
• Homo habilis and H. rudolfensis existed during this time.

Early Stone Age Techno-Complexes

• The Lomekwian existed 3.3 mya, Lomekwi 3, Kenya
• Lomekwian tools included percussion tools, cores, and flakes
• The Oldowan existed 2.6-1.7mya in East Africa.
• Oldowan tools included percussion tools, cores, and flakes.
• Use-wear on Oldowan tools indicates use on wood, roots/tubers, and seeds.

Identifying Early Tool Technologies

• It's important to note, not all fractured stones are 'cultural'.
• Purpose-made tools, identified flake scars, tool cut marks, and deliberately broken bones point towards human tool use.

Interpreting Past Hominin Behavior

• Ethnographic studies involve 'archaeologically' observing modern human behavior
• Wear patterns on ancient tools can be studied through experimental archaeology and Use Wear studies
• This involves replicating and using tools

Taphonomy and Bone Assemblages

• Bone assemblages can result from large carnivore dens where hominins were prey, or from accidental accumulations
• Site re-evaluation is needed, noting that hominins produced them, but they were not classic "home bases"

The Olduvai Site

• The Olduvai Site (Olduvai Gorge) contains the oldest H. habilis 'encampments'.
• This site is approximately 1.8 to 1.6 million years old.
• Layers of smashed animal bone, stone tools, and basalt cobbles can be found here

Site Characteristics

• A roughly 4m circle of basalt cobbles
• The area contains cobbles, stone artifacts, and bone
• Bones are not fully butchered
• Possible functions of the sites include foundation windbreak shelters, processing sites, or stockpiles of throwing stones

Cultural Behavior in Humans

• Humans rely on culture and especially material culture to survive.
• Humans rely on the sharing and passing of culture to survive
• Culture is a set of interrelated processes.
• Culture is shared, learned by a group
• Interaction spreads culture
• The process is social vs individual/innate
• Culture is generally adaptive, ever-changing, and integrative.

Homo Erectus

• Homo erectus colonized varied geographies outside of Africa after 2mya as the first hominin to leave Africa.
• Skeletal morphologies show considerable variation
• H. ergaster inhabited Africa while H. erectus was found in Europe/East Asia.
• Fossils have been found in Asia from ~1.6mya
• Recent finds in Georgia date to ~1.8mya

H. Erectus Traits

• H. erectus had a cranial capacity mean of 900cc (700-1200cc).
• Jaws were lighter and thinner with a less prognathic face.
• H. erectus had post cranial adaptations to full life on the ground

"Turkana Boy"

• "Turkana Boy" is dated to ~1.6mya
• He was found in Nariokotome, west of Lake Turkana.
• The skeleton is of an adolescent male
• This indicates prolonged development
• A female pelvis was found ~1.3mya, Ethiopia
• H. erectus had large brained infants

H. Erectus Fossil Discoveries in Asia

• "Java Man" was discovered in 1891.
• Fossils are ~1.6 - 1mya
• The Ngandong site dates to 117kyaa to 40kya.
• "Peking Man" was discovered in the 1920s, China.
• Cranial and post-cranial elements found are ~800k to 130kya.

H. Erectus Fossil Discoveries in Africa

• Discoveries occurred in Northern Africa, 1950s
• H. erectus fossils date from 1.78mya
• Fossils located in the Lake Turkana region, Kenya
• Mostly complete individuals fossils have been found

H. Erectus Fossil Discoveries in Europe

• Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia
• Dated to 1.76mya-1.86 mya
• Debate on whether they were the earliest African emigrants, with the possibility of variation across traits
• Atapuerca region, Spain
• Norfolk, England
• Question of whether they were H. erectus or H. antessessor

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

• The Pleistocene Epoch defines this period (2.6mya to 100kya)
• 3.3mya marked the Lomekwian; 2.6mya marked the Oldowan
• Oldowan tool production is associated with H. erectus after 1.8mya

Acheulian Tool Tradition

• The Acheulian tool tradition dates ~1.6mya to 1mya.
• It is oldest in Africa (~1.6 mya).
• Innovation seen through Bifacial flaking
• Animal butchery is indicated by Experiments & use wear
• Tools included Handaxes, picks, cleavers, scrapers, burins

Homo Erectus Culture & Diet

• The diet of Homo erectus is composed of plant foods
• They may have been hunters or scavengers
• Group co-ordination and hunting planning involved driving game into bogs to kill
• Likely hunted smaller game

Homo Erectus Fire and Habitation

• Homo erectus used and controlled fire, used for cooking
• Colder climates imply use of fire and clothing
• Zhoukoudian Cave, China held sites from ~500 000 years ago, with Burnt bone and ash
• Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel showed sites from ~800, 000 years ago
• Burnt bone, seeds, wood and clusters of artifacts have been found, suggesting hearths

Homo Erectus Lifestyle

• Campsites were located close to resources in caves / open air, showing varied activity areas
• Specialized sites developed away from camp, such as butchering sites and tool workshops
• Terra Amata, near Nice, France, dates to ~400kya and presents the earliest known hominin shelter.

Homo Erectus Rituals

• Red ochre was used at Palaeolithic sites, representing blood or life. This was important in ancient & current cultures
• The "Pit of bones” at Atapuerca, Spain gives Evidence of burial rituals?

Homo Erectus Language

• Homo erectus had the capability for rudimentary language present
• Java endocasts show language use ~1.6-1.3mya
• Anatomy of H. erectus throat = restricted speech capabilities

Evolution of H. Erectus

• Cranial capacity and brain increased
• Face, teeth, and jaws receded
• This was enabled by cooking food
• Sexual dimorphism reduced
• Marriage-like unions/family units developed
• Cultural innovations developed, like clothes and fire
• These allowed H. erectus to move to new environments