Evolution of Homo Species and stone Tools

Evolution of Homo Species

• The Pliocene Epoch occurred 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago
• During the Pliocene, hominin evolution took place and conditions became cooler and drier
• The Pleistocene Epoch occurred approximately 2.6 million years ago to 11,000 years ago
• The Pleistocene Epoch had a variable climate consisting of warm/wet (interglacial) and cold/dry (glacial) cycles
• New environmental connections and separations occurred
• New cultural adaptations were seen
• Homo habilis and H. rudolfensis existed

Early Stone Age Techno-Complexes

• The Lomekwian existed 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi 3, Kenya, and involved percussion tools such as cores and flakes
• The Oldowan existed 2.6 to 1.7 million years ago in East Africa and included percussion tools such as cores and flakes, and were used to work wood, roots/tubers and seeds

How to Identify Early Tool Technologies

• Not all fractured stones are 'cultural'
• Identify features that are human-made
• Purpose made tools have flake scars
• Tool cut marks are evidence
• Deliberate broken bones offer information

Interpreting Past Hominin Behaviour

• Ethnographic studies include 'archaeologically' observing modern human behavior
• Experimental archaeology and Use Wear studies replicate and use tools to study wear patterns on ancient tools
• Taphonomy helps in interpreting past hominin behavior
• Bone assemblages in large carnivore dens indicate hominins were prey and accidental accumulations
• Hominin sites are being re-evaluated but are not classic 'homebases'

The Olduvai Site

• The Olduvai Site (Olduvai Gorge) contains the oldest H. habilis 'encampments' and dates to around 1.8 to 1.6 million years ago
• Layers of smashed animal bone, stone tools, and basalt cobbles are present
• There is a rough 4m circle of basalt cobbles with stone artifacts and bone around the circle
• The bones are not fully butchered
• Possible functions may be foundation windbreak shelter, processing site, or stockpile of throwing stones within a defendable place

Cultural Behaviour in Humans

• Humans rely on culture, especially material culture, to survive
• Humans rely on sharing and passing of culture from generation to generation
• Culture is a set of interrelated processes shared and learned by a group of individuals where interaction between individuals spreads culture
• It is a social process not individual, is generally adaptive, and is ever-changing and integrative

Homo Erectus

• Homo erectus colonized varied geographies outside of Africa after 2 million years ago and was the first hominin to leave Africa
• There is considerable variation in skeletal morphologies
• H. ergaster existed in Africa while H. erectus existed in Europe/East Asia
• Fossils have been found in Asia around 1.6 million years ago and recent finds in Georgia date to around 1.8 million years ago
• The H. erectus cranial capacity mean was 900cc (700-1200cc)
• They had a lighter and thinner jaw, less prognathic face, and post cranial adaptations to full life on the ground

H. Erectus Traits

• "Turkana Boy" is approximately 1.6 million years old and was found in Nariokotome, west of Lake Turkana
• He is an adolescent male skeleton, which indicates a prolonged developmental period
• A female pelvis fossil was found at ~1.3mya in Ethiopia
• H. erectus had large brained infants

Discoveries of H. Erectus Fossils

• "Java Man" was discovered in 1891 with fossils dating to ~1.6 - 1 million years ago
• The Ngandong site dates to 117,000 to 40,000 years ago
• "Peking Man" was discovered in the 1920s in China and shows cranial and postcranial elements
• It dates from approximately 800,000 to 130,000 years ago
• H. erectus fossils from Africa are from Northern Africa, 1950s, from 1.78 million years ago in the Lake Turkana region, Kenya
• There are numerous mostly complete individuals
• Fossils in Europe have been found in Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia from 1.76mya-1.86 mya
• These are potentially the earliest African emigrants, with variation across traits
• They also originate in the Atapuerca region, Spain and Norfolk, England

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

• The Pleistocene Epoch occurred 2.6 million years ago to 100,000 years ago
• The Lomekwian existed 3.3 million years ago and the Oldowan existed 2.6 million years ago
• Oldowan tool production is associated with H. erectus after 1.8 million years ago

Acheulian Tool Tradition

• The Acheulian tool tradition dates from approximately 1.6 million years ago to 1 million years ago
• The oldest examples are from approximately 1.6 million years ago in Africa
• Innovation of bifacial flaking
• Use wear indicates animal butchery
• Handaxes, picks, cleavers, scrapers, and burins are examples of tools used

Homo Erectus Culture

• The Homo erectus diet consisted of being hunted or scavenged
• There was group co-ordination and planning and instances of driving game into bogs to kill it
• They likely hunted smaller game and plant foods were important
• Homo erectus culture included using and controlling fire for cooking and clothing
• Colder climates imply the use of fire and clothing
• Zhoukoudian Cave, China dates to about 500,000 years ago and had burnt bone and ash
• Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel dates to approximately 800,000 years ago, with burnt bone, seeds, wood and clusters of artifacts suggesting hearths
• Homo erectus campsites were located close to resources in caves or open air with varied activity areas
• Specialized sites away from camp also existed for butchering and tool workshops
• Terra Amata, near Nice, France, dates to approximately 400,000 years ago, and is the earliest known hominin shelter

Homo Erectus Rituals and Language

• The use of red ochre at Palaeolithic sites represented blood or life, and were important in ancient and current cultures
• The pit of bones at Atapuerca, Spain show evidence of burial rituals
• There was rudimentary language present, with Java endocasts indicating language use ~1.6-1.3 million years ago
• The anatomy of H. erectus throat meant restricted speech capabilities

Evolution of Homo Erectus

• There was an increase in cranial capacity and brain mass and a decrease in face, teeth, and jaws
• Sexual dimorphism decreased
• Marriage-like unions/family units were being formed
• Cultural innovations include clothes and used fire
• Homo erectus was able to move to new environments