Evaluating Truth and Opinions in Philosophy

Lesson 5: Evaluating Truth from Opinions Using the Methods of Philosophizing

• Objectives include determining truth from opinion, evaluating arguments and ways of expressing one's beliefs, emotions, and opinion, and illustrating methods or ways of looking at truth and considering mere opinion.
• Critical thinking is a method philosophers use to address philosophical questions.
• Critical thinking involves a careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to questions of general interest.
• The Greek word "kritikos" means "to separate," and "ana" means "throughout" or "lusis" which means to loosen thus critical thinking means thinking analytically.
• Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince someone that a claim or opinion is truthful.
• Some arguments can be based on faulty reasoning.
• Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning and signify errors in reasoning, which may be intentional.

Common Fallacies

• Ad hominem: Attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.
• Ad baculum (appeal to force): Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument.
• Ad misericordiam (appeal to pity): Using emotion such as pity or sympathy.
• Ad populum (appeal to the majority): Presenting an idea as acceptable because many people accept it.
• Ad antiquities (appeal to tradition): Presenting an idea as acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
• Fallacy of composition: Assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole.
• Fallacy of division: Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.
• Petitio principii (begging the question): Assuming that the thing or idea to be proven is true, also known as a circular argument..
• Post hoc (cause-and-effect): Assuming a "cause-and-effect" relationship between unrelated events.
• Bias refers to personal views of the person presenting information and are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but tendencies or influences that affect one's view.
• Correspondence bias is the tendency to judge a person's personality by their actions, without considering external factors or influences.
• Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek and accept information that confirms one's own beliefs and reject ideas that go against it.
• Conflict of interest occurs when a person or group presents something they are connected to or has a vested interest in the issue being discussed.

Lesson 6: The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

• Objectives: To recognize one's limitations and possibilities, how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence, as well as evaluate these limitations and possibilities.
• Embodied spirit signifies that the body is not separate from the soul, and vice versa.
• Material bodies plus immaterial souls possess humans.
• "Man" is commonly referred to as "male" with the power to think, judge, and reason.
• Humans possess a substantial unity of a material and spiritual body.
• "Human" refers to man as a species; Homo sapiens or modern human beings, and differentiates man from other animals.
• "Person" refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and dignity.
• Definitions of "person" are Philosophical and dictated upon by beliefs, traditions, and culture.
• Human Nature: Defines the nature of humans, referring to characteristics that distinguish humans from all other creatures.
• Traits like feeling, acting, and thinking are expected to arise independently of culture and society.
• Human person means they have an awareness of self, self-determination, can interact with others and have dignity.
• Self-awareness refers to a person having a clear perception of oneself, including thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions.
• Self-determination refers to the capability to make choices and decisions based on preferences, monitor and regulate actions, and be goal-oriented and self-directed.
• Consequences are the result of an action or condition.
• Philosopher's believe a person acts freely and with due regard for the consequences of their actions.
• Externality refers to the capability to reach out and interact with others and the world.
• Dignity refers to the innate right to be valued and respected, with Philosophers considering all humans as having an inherent worth or value.
• Human persons have limitations and are naturally deficient beings and not prepared with the best physical aspects among all beings.
• Human persons cannot naturally fly, or breath underwater without equipment.
• Limitations can lead to possibilities.
• Transcendence is the ability to change, be dynamic, and continually redefine oneself, working with facticity to create change. Ideals, inspirations, and aspirations are examples of ways to practice transcendence.
• Facticity refers to the things in life that are already given like experiences, capabilities, and attributes.
• Spatial-Temporal Being: Space is Spatial and time is temporal.
• Temporal beings have a finite quality or state of limitations.