Evaluating and Understanding Text

Evaluating and Understanding Text

• Analysis involves breaking down the text to identify central ideas, supporting arguments, and purpose.
• Considering the author's perspective involves analyzing their point of view and biases.
• Identifying the main idea involves determining the text's key message.
• Analyzing supporting evidence involves examining how the author supports their arguments.
• Determining the purpose involves identifying the text's intended effect on the reader.
• Interpreting the meaning involves explaining the text in your own words to clearly and concisely summarize key points.
• Drawing conclusions involves making inferences based on the text.
• Connecting to other ideas involves relating the text to other concepts learned or read about.
• Considering the text's context involves understanding how the historical or cultural context influences the text.

Types of Memory

Episodic Memory

• Involves remembering events throughout a lifetime.
• Subtypes include:
  • Autobiographical memory: remembering life events.
  • Retrospective memory: remembering past events.
  • Prospective memory: remembering future events.

Semantic Memory

• Involves general knowledge.
• Subtypes include:
  • Conceptual memory: knowledge of concepts.
  • Procedural memory: knowledge of skills, habits, and how to do things.
  • Lexical memory: knowledge of vocabulary.
  • Spatial memory: knowledge of the layout of environments.

Implicit Memory

• Involves unconscious or hard-to-recall memories.
• Subtypes include:
  • Priming: exposure to a stimulus influences later responses.
  • Perceptual learning: improved sensory processing.
  • Classical conditioning: associations between stimuli and responses.

Working Memory

• Involves short-term memory used for tasks.
• Subtypes include:
  • Central executive: controls attention and manages tasks.
  • Phonological loop: stores and processes verbal information.
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: stores and processes visual information.

Long-Term Memory

• Involves relatively permanent information storage.
• Subtypes include:
  • Declarative memory: consciously accessible information.
  • Non-Declarative memory: skills and habits.

Explicit Memory

• Involves consciously retrieved information.
• Subtypes include:
  • Recall: retrieving information without cues.
  • Recognition: identifying whether information is familiar.

Memory Impairments

• Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories.
• Retrograde amnesia: inability to retrieve memories from the past.
• Transient global amnesia: temporary memory loss, often due to a medical event.
• Dementia: progressive decline in cognitive function.
  • Subtypes include:
    • Alzheimer's disease: a form of dementia.
    • Vascular dementia: caused by damage to blood vessels in the brain.
    • Lewy body dementia: symptoms include hallucinations, sleep disturbances, and Parkinson's-like movement problems.
• Hypnopompic: vivid sensory experiences upon waking.
• Hypnagogic: vivid hallucinations upon falling asleep.
• Paramnesia: false memories or distortions of real memories.
  • Subtypes include:
    • Confabulation: unconsciously filling in gaps in memory with fabricated details.

Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning

• Theoretical approaches in explaining the etiology of psychological disorders can be one-dimensional (looking for a single cause) or multidimensional (looking for a systemic cause).

Genetic Contributions

• Genes are long molecules of DNA at various locations on chromosomes within a cell nucleus.
• Chromosomes are chain-like structures within a cell nucleus that contain the genes.
• Humans have 46 chromosomes, consisting of 23 pairs, including 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XX for females and XY for males).
• Dominant and recessive genes affect phenotypes, or observable characteristics, which are influenced by multiple genes or polymorphisms.
• Polymorphisms are naturally occurring variations of genes, and polygenic effects involve multiple genes or multiple polymorphisms.
• Endophenotypes are genetic mechanisms that contribute to underlying problems causing symptoms and difficulties experienced by people with psychological disorders.
• Basic Genetic Epidemiology involves statistical analysis of family, twin, and adoption studies to determine the inheritability of a disorder.
• Advanced Genetic Epidemiology studies the factors that influence a disorder.
• Gene Finding involves identifying the specific gene that influences behavior.
• Molecular Genetics involves biological analysis of individual DNA samples to understand biological processes affected by genes.

Twin Studies

• Twin studies, especially with identical twins, help identify genetic contributions to psychological disorders.
• For example, people with a short allele of the 5-HTT gene who experience severe stressful life events are at greater risk of developing depression.

Epigenetics

• Epigenetic factors, such as new learning or stress, can alter the phenotypic expression of genes.

Biological and Neurological Bases

• Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, especially the brain, to understand behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes.

Neurotransmitter Systems

• Dopamine is associated with schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease.
• Acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer's disease.
• Norepinephrine is associated with mania and depression.
• GABA is associated with relaxation and anxiety/OCD.
• Serotonin is associated with mania, depression, anxiety, and eating disorders.
• Epinephrine is associated with stress and fatigue.
• Glutamate is associated with sleep disorders and Huntington's disease.
• Endorphins are associated with euphoria.

Synapse

• The synapse is a tiny fluid-filled space between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron.

Agonist, Antagonist, and Inverse Agonist

• An agonist increases the activity of neurotransmitters (excitatory).
• An antagonist decreases or blocks neurotransmitter activity (inhibitory).
• An inverse agonist produces effects opposite to those produced by neurotransmitters.

Reuptake

• Neurotransmitters can be released, broken down, and brought back to the synaptic cleft through reuptake.

Hormones

• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine glands in the body.

Neurotransmitters

• GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter, regulating mood, irritability, sleep, and seizures.
• Serotonin regulates mood, sleep patterns, sexuality, appetite, and pain.
• Dopamine is involved in the body's reward system, pleasure, and learning.
• Epinephrine is responsible for the fight-or-flight response.
• Norepinephrine regulates alertness, arousal, decision-making, attention, and focus.
• Endorphins are natural pain relievers.
• Acetylcholine regulates heart rate, blood pressure, gut motility, muscle contraction, memory, motivation, sexual desire, sleep, and learning.

Brain Structures

• The brain stem is the lower and more ancient part of the brain, essential for autonomic functioning.
• The hindbrain contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, regulating autonomic activities such as breathing and heartbeat.
• The cerebellum controls motor coordination and is associated with autism.
• The midbrain coordinates movements with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system.
• The thalamus and hypothalamus are involved in regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones.
• The limbic system, including the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala, regulates emotional experiences and expressions, learning, and impulse control.
• The basal ganglia, including the caudate nucleus, are involved in movement and are associated with Parkinson's disease.
• The cerebral cortex provides human qualities, allowing for thinking, learning, and controlling impulses.

Abnormal Psychology

• Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning assesses an individual's overall functioning

Genetic Contributions

• Genes: carry information inherited from parents, located on chromosomes within the cell nucleus
• Chromosomes: 46 in total, 23 pairs, 22 pairs of autosomes, and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XX for female, XY for male)
• Genetic Epidemiology: studies the role of genetics in psychological disorders through statistical analysis of family, twin, and adoption studies
• Polygenic: influenced by multiple genes or polymorphisms of genes with small effects
• Endophenotypes: genetic mechanisms contributing to underlying problems causing symptoms of psychological disorders
• Gene Finding: identifies genes influencing behavior
• Molecular Genetics: analyzes individual DNA samples to understand biological processes affected by genes

Twin Studies

• Identical twins: share genetic makeup, used to study genetic influences on psychological disorders
• Adoption Studies: examine behavioral patterns or psychological disorders in adoptees and their biological relatives

Epigenetics

• Factors: affect phenotypic expression of genes, including new learning and stress

Biological and Neurological Bases

• Neuroscience: study of the nervous system, including the brain, to understand behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes
• Neurotransmitter Systems: chemical messengers involved in various physiological and psychological processes

Neurotransmitters

• Dopamine: involved in schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and reward system
• Acetylcholine: involved in Alzheimer's disease, muscle contraction, and memory
• Norepinephrine: involved in mania, depression, and attention
• Serotonin: involved in mania, depression, anxiety, and eating disorders
• GABA: involved in relaxation, anxiety, and OCD
• Epinephrine: involved in stress and fatigue
• Glutamate: involved in sleep disorders and Huntington's disease
• Endorphins: involved in natural pain relief

Synapse and Neurotransmission

• Synapse: tiny fluid-filled space between neurons
• Agonist: increases neurotransmitter activity
• Antagonist: decreases or blocks neurotransmitter activity
• Inverse Agonist: produces opposite effects of neurotransmitters
• Reuptake: process of neurotransmitter release and breakdown

Hormones and Neurotransmitters

• Hormones: chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands
• Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers of the body

Brain Structures and Associated Behaviors

• Corpus Callosum: involved in communication between hemispheres
• Limbic System: involved in attention, emotion, and "fight or flight" response
• Brain Stem: regulates autonomic functions such as breathing and heartbeat
• Hindbrain: contains medulla, pons, and cerebellum, regulating autonomic activities
• Thalamus and Hypothalamus: involved in regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones
• Basal Ganglia: involved in posture, movement, and Parkinson's disease

Labeling and Mislabeling

• Labeling: portraying identity based on imperfections and mistakes
• Minimization: downplaying the significance of an event or emotion
• Magnification: exaggerating the effects of one's behaviors

Stress and Coping

• General Adaptation to Stress Theory: understanding the relationship between stressful events and the body's response to stress
• Stress-Appraisal/Cognitive Appraisal Theory: stress is a two-way process involving production of stressors and individual response to stressors

Memory Disorders

• Anosognosia: no memories of one's own illness
• Confabulation: filling in memory gaps with imaginary experiences
• Disorientation: inability to identify time, places, and persons
• De Javu: unfamiliar perceived as familiar
• Jamais Vu: familiar perceived as unfamiliar
• Hypermnesia: increased memory
• Paramnesia: false or perverted memory
• Amnesia: loss of memory

Types of Amnesia

• Biogenic: caused by brain damage or disease
• Psychogenic or Dissociative or Functional: caused by psychological trauma, repressed memories

Memory

• Declarative: factual information
• Procedural: skills and habits
• Semantic: general knowledge and facts
• Episodic: events in a particular time, place, or context

Three-System Approach to Memory

• Sensory: initial storage of information
• Short-Term Memory: information temporarily stored
• Long-Term Memory: information stored for an extended period