European Empires in the Americas

The European nations that colonized the Americas, including Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands. These countries were driven by economic and political ambitions, as well as a desire to spread their influence and culture.

The process by which European nations established and maintained control over territories in the Americas. This involved taking resources, creating new societies, and imposing their political and social systems.

The theory of mercantilism dominated European economic thought during the colonial era. This theory emphasized the importance of government intervention in promoting national wealth through exports, accumulating gold and silver, and creating favorable trade balances.

The devastating impact of European diseases on indigenous populations in the Americas. The lack of immunity to diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza resulted in a massive decline in Native American populations, with an estimated 90% dying within a century of European contact.

The period of unusually cold temperatures that occurred between the 13th and 19th centuries. The Little Ice Age is believed to have been caused by natural factors like volcanic eruptions and changes in solar activity.

Encomienda is a Spanish labor system that was used in the Americas during the colonial era. It allowed Spanish settlers to demand labor from Native Americans in exchange for protection and Christian conversion. This system essentially turned into a system of forced labor for Native Americans, often resulting in terrible conditions and exploitation.

The Hacienda system played a major role in the development of colonial economies in Latin America. It involved large estates, often owned by Spanish landowners, where indigenous laborers worked for low wages or in debt peonage. The system was a continuation of exploitation of indigenous populations under the Spanish.

The social hierarchy that emerged in Spanish America was rigid and based on race and ancestry. Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) held the highest positions, followed by Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas). Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans were at the bottom of this hierarchy.

A system of forced labor used in many parts of the world. In the Americas, it primarily used enslaved Africans who were transported across the Atlantic. Enslaved people endured harsh conditions and worked on plantations, mines, and other industries. This system was a core part of colonial economies in the Americas.

The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (the Americas). This exchange had a profound impact on both continents, resulting in demographic changes, new agricultural practices, and the spread of diseases.

The dominance of European empires in the Americas led to significant benefits for Europe. The wealth from colonial resources fuelled economic growth, aided the Scientific Revolution, and ultimately contributed to the rise of the Industrial Revolution.

Settler colonies, like those in British North America, were established with the intention of creating new societies largely composed of European settlers. This resulted in a different colonial experience compared to the Spanish and Portuguese empires, which primarily focused on extraction of resources and control of indigenous populations.

The rapid expansion of the Russian Empire eastward into the steppes (grasslands) and Siberia. This expansion was driven by various factors, including security concerns, access to valuable resources like furs, and the desire to exert control over nomadic peoples.

The tribute system, or Yasak, was a key element of Russian imperial control over conquered territories. Yasak required conquered peoples to pay tribute to the tsars in the form of goods like furs. This system reinforced Russian dominance and contributed to the exploitation of conquered societies.

The Russian Empire experienced conflicts with various neighbors to the west, including the Ottoman Empire, Poland, Sweden, and others. These conflicts contributed to the expansion of the Russian empire westward and solidified its role as a major European power.

The expansion of Russian territory towards the east, particularly in Siberia and the Pacific, that began in the 16th century. This expansion was driven by various factors, including the search for new resources like furs and the desire to control the Eurasian landmass. The expansion also involved military conquests, diplomatic negotiations, and settlements by Russian people.

The Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 1644 to 1912. They were of Manchu origin, a group of nomadic peoples from Manchuria, north of the Great Wall. They conquered and expanded the Chinese empire, bringing vast regions of Central Asia under their control. The Qing dynasty maintained its cultural and ethnic distinctiveness but also incorporated elements of Confucianism and Chinese administration.

A series of large-scale naval expeditions launched by the Chinese admiral Zheng He during the Ming Dynasty in the early 15th century. These expeditions explored vast regions across the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as the Horn of Africa. They were a testament to the advancements in Chinese technology and maritime prowess, but were ultimately discontinued.

The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526 by Babur, ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent for over 200 years. The empire's rulers were of Central Asian Turkic origins, claiming descent from Ghengis Khan, and brought the entire subcontinent under their authority. The Mughal Empire is known for its blend of Persian, Islamic, and Hindu cultural influences, and its famous emperors like Akbar and Aurangzeb.

The Ottoman Empire, founded in 1299, ruled over a vast territory spanning parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It was a powerful empire that combined the traditions of Turkic warriors, Islamic religion, and imperial administration. The Ottoman Empire transformed the lives of Turks, leading to the adoption of Islam and the rise of a unique blend of Islamic law and military prowess.

A major territorial conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Zunghar Mongols in Central Asia. The Qing dynasty sought to secure its borders and prevent further Mongol incursions. This conflict resulted in the Qing conquest of the Zunghar territory, consolidating the Qing Empire's control over Central Asia and marking it as a major player in the region.

The treaty signed in 1689 between Russia and the Qing dynasty of China, setting the border between the two empires. This treaty marked a peaceful resolution to the territorial disputes between the two powers and established a relatively stable frontier in Central Asia.

A policy of tolerance and accommodation adopted by Mughal emperor Akbar, aimed at fostering harmony between the Muslim ruling class and Hindu majority population. Akbar encouraged interfaith dialogue, supported Hindu temples, and allowed Hindus to hold important positions in his government. He also embraced the arts and culture of both Muslims and Hindus.

A prominent Islamic scholar and theologian who argued against Akbar's policy of tolerance and accommodation. He believed that Muslims had a duty to enforce Islamic law, including the imposition of jizya tax on non-Muslims. He also challenged Akbar's attempts to blend religions and advocated for a stricter interpretation of Islam.

The Mughal emperor who reversed Akbar's policies of tolerance towards Hindus. He enforced Islamic supremacy, reimposed jizya tax, destroyed Hindu temples, and restricted the arts and culture. His policies created unrest and opposition among Hindus, helping to weaken the Mughal empire.

Ottoman practice of collecting young boys from Christian families and raising them as Muslims for service in the military and administration. This system helped build a loyal and disciplined military force for the Ottomans but also caused resentment and fear among Christians.

The conquest of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. This event marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, a major symbol of Eastern Christianity, and ushered in a new era of Ottoman rule over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans.

The term referring to the Ottoman period when women of the royal court had significant influence in the political affairs of the empire. Women in the Ottoman Empire played a vital role in political maneuvering, providing advice to sultans, and even wielding power behind the throne.

A concept that refers to the fear and apprehension felt towards the Ottoman Empire by Christian Europeans. This fear was fueled by the Ottoman Empire's military successes, its territorial expansion, and its perceived threat to Christian civilization.