European Balance of Power 1871

European Balance of Power in 1871

• The German Empire's formation in 1871 significantly altered Europe's power equilibrium
• Germany possessed geographic advantages, strong industries, a robust economy, and was the second-most populated European country
• Russia had the largest army and territory
• Austria-Hungary was a large empire comprised of 11 nationalities seeking independence
• France had lost Alsace-Lorraine
• Italy was formed in 1861, with its northern part formerly under Austrian control
• The Ottoman Empire was in decline, labeled "the sick man of Europe"
• Austria and Russia rivaled for Turkish lands amidst growing calls for independence
• German unification involved the Danish War (1864), Austrian War (1866, won in 7 weeks), and French War (1870, won in 6 weeks)
• Bismarck aimed to protect the new Germany by isolating France, fearing a combined Russia, France, and Austria

The Three Emperor's League (1873)

• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia formed the Three Emperor's League in 1873
• Bismarck, a Machiavellian politician, prioritized national interests and European expansion to safeguard Germany
• Alexander II, Franz Joseph, and William I were conservative leaders wary of change
• Article 1 of the alliance stipulated neutrality and conflict resolution efforts if a member was at war with another country
• The three nations shared common adversaries: France (for Germany), the Ottoman Empire (for Russia), and Italy and Serbia (for Austria-Hungary)
• Bismarck sought to isolate France and address Balkan independence movements amidst Austro-Russian tensions

The Collapse of the Three Emperor's League (1878) and the Eastern Question

• Nationalist uprisings arose in Herzegovina and Bosnia during 1875
• Bulgarian uprisings in 1876 resulted in 30,000 Bulgarian deaths by the Ottoman Empire
• Russia waged war against the Ottoman Empire in 1877, championing Pan-Slavism
• Russian forces captured Sophia in 1878 after the battle of Sophia
• The Treaty of San Stefano established a large autonomous Bulgarian state, recognized Montenegrin, Serbian, and Romanian independence, and ceded Bessarabia and Batum
• Austria-Hungary was alarmed by Russia's growing influence
• The key question was how to manage the declining Ottoman Empire, which could be divided among great powers, supported, or divided into independent states
• Austria-Hungary allied with Britain due to concerns over Russian expansion into the Suez Canal
• The Congress of Berlin in 1878, mediated by Bismarck, involved major European powers and aimed to revise the Treaty of San Stefano

The Congress of Berlin (1878)

• The Congress included major European powers, as well as Serbia, Romania, Greece, and Montenegro
• Bismarck aimed to appear as a peacemaker while safeguarding Germany from war
• The treaty of San Stefano's "Greater Bulgaria" was divided into three parts: semi-independent Little Bulgaria, Macedonia (returned to the Ottoman Empire), and fully independent Eastern Rumelia
• Serbia and Montenegro gained full independence but lost territories, while Romania also achieved full independence
• Russia received territories like Bosnia-Herzegovina and part of Armenia, heightening Austro-Hungarian fears of Russian influence in the Balkans
• Britain was wary of Russia's approach to the Suez Canal
• Russia's chancellor considered the congress "the darkest day of my life" due to territorial losses
• Bismarck fostered Franco-Italian rivalry by encouraging France to seek influence in Tunisia, a territory Italy also desired

Dual Alliance (1879)

• Austria-Hungary and Germany formed a secret military alliance
• Terms: If either Germany or Austria-Hungary was attacked by Russia, the other would declare war
• Terms: If either Austria-Hungary or Germany was attacked by another country, the other would remain neutral, unless Russia aided the aggressor, then the ally would declare war
• The alliance, kept secret until 1888 and renewed until 1918, played a role in Germany's declaration of war in WWI after Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia with Russian support

Three Emperor's League pt 2

• Russia and Germany
• Prior consultation was required before intervening militarily in the Ottoman Empire
• If a member was at war with a fourth power (excluding the Ottoman Empire), the other two would remain neutral
• Russia was granted free passage through the Straits of Constantinople in exchange for recognizing Austro-Hungarian administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina
• The alliance benefited Germany and Russia.
• The alliance collapsed in 1886 due to another Balkan crisis, where Eastern Rumelia revolted against the Ottoman Empire and united with Little Bulgaria, causing renewed Austro-Russian competition

The Triple Alliance (1882)

• Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany formed the Triple Alliance
• Germany and Austria-Hungary would assist Italy if attacked by France
• Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France
• Italy would remain neutral in a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia

The Conference of Berlin (1884-5)

• Attendees: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Russian Empire, Spain, Sweden-Norway, United Kingdom, United States
• The conference aimed to end slavery in Africa and regulate European colonization
• It established the principle of "effective occupation," requiring European powers to actively govern and develop territories they claimed, leading to the "Scramble for Africa"

Bismarck's Desires

• A desire to focus European powers on Africa to avoid alliances against Germany
• To use propaganda to impress the public
• Divert French attention from Alsace-Lorraine to African colonies

The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)

• Germany and Russia entered a secret treaty not known to Austria-Hungary
• Germany would back Russia's claims in the straits and acknowledged Russia's Balkan influence
• Both nations would remain neutral if the other was attacked, unless Russia attacked Austria-Hungary, or Germany attacked France
• Austria, Britain, and Italy formed the Second Mediterranean Agreement (1887)
• Kaiser Wilhelm III's succession in 1888 led to a desire for a more powerful Germany with ships and colonies, which challenged Bismarck's approach
• Bismarck resigned in 1890
• France and Russia formed a defensive alliance against Germany in 1891
• Bismarck died in 1898
• In 1904, Britain allied with France (Entente Cordiale), followed by an entente with Russia in 1907
• By 1907, Europe was divided into the Triple Alliance (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary) and the Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia)

The Balance of Power in 1871: A New European Order

• German Unification (1871) and Its Impact
• France was defeated at Sedan (1870)
• The Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), Germany annexed Alsace-Lorraine, causing permanent French hostility
• Germany was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (January 18, 1871)
• France paid an indemnity of 5 billion francs
• Germany became Europe's dominant power
  • Had the largest army in Europe, with 800,000 troops by 1914
  • By 1900, Germany's coal and steel production surpassed Britain's
  • Population grew from 41 million in 1871 to 65 million in 1914
• France faced diplomatic isolation due to Bismarck's alliance system

Imperial Expansion in Africa & Asia (1880s–1914) and Its Impact on Diplomacy

• The "Scramble for Africa"
  • Britain controlled key trade routes (Suez Canal)
  • France and Germany had a rivalry in Morocco
  • German Weltpolitik increased tensions with Britain and France
  • The Congo Free State under King Leopold II caused International outrage over brutal rule
  • Italy was defeated by Ethiopia at Adwa (1896)

Berlin Conference (1884-85): "Rules" for Imperial Expansion

• Bismarck organized the conference to prevent European war over Africa
• Belgium was recognized to have control of the Congo
• The "effective occupation" principle was formalized, triggering land grabs
• Germany gained Southwest Africa, East Africa, and Cameroon
• This increased Anglo-German and Franco-German tensions
• It did not prevent future conflicts like the Fashoda, Boer War, Moroccan Crises

Key Imperial Crises & Their Diplomatic Impact

• Fashoda Crisis (1898): France backed down, improving Anglo-French relations
• Boer War (1899-1902): Germany supported Boers, worsening Anglo-German relations
• Moroccan Crises (1905 & 1911): Strengthened Entente Cordiale (1904)
• Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Weakened Ottomans, inspiring Balkan nationalism

Imperialism as a Cause of World War I

• Germany sought "a place in the sun" (Weltpolitik)
• Britain and France feared German economic expansion

Naval Race

• Tirpitz’s Naval Laws (1898-1912): Laws led to German navy expansion
• HMS Dreadnought (1906): Launched in 1906, sparked Anglo-German arms race
• Alliance shifts occurred
• Anglo-German rivalry pushed Britain closer to France (Entente Cordiale, 1904)
• Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) was strengthened due to shared concerns over Germany

Congress of Berlin (1878) & Its Impact

• The Eastern Question was the background
• The Ottoman Empire was declining, thus creating instability in the Balkans
• Russo-Turkish War (1875-77) was fought, Russia defeated Ottoman Empire
• Treaty of San Stefano (1878): Created "Greater Bulgaria" (a Russian puppet state); alarmed Britain & Austria-Hungary which feared Russian expansion
• The Congress of Berlin (June-July 1878) was led by Bismarck to prevent war among Great Powers
• As a result, Bulgaria was reduced, thus Russia was humiliated.
• Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia-Herzegovina
• Britain gained Cyprus
• Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained independence
• Russia resented Germany & Austria, which led to Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
• Serbia was angered → Balkan nationalism increased
• Germany-Austria alliance was strengthened (Dual Alliance, 1879)

The European Alliance System (1879–1914)

• Bismarck’s System (1871–1890) was established
• Dual Alliance (Germany & Austria-Hungary of 1879): Anti-Russian alliance
• Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy of 1882): Defensive alliance
• Reinsurance Treaty (Germany & Russia 1887)
  • Prevented Russian-French alliance
  • Kept France isolated
  • Maintained European stability

Wilhelm II’s Diplomacy (1890–1914)

• Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck in 1890
• Germany let the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia lapse
• France & Russia formed the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
• As a result, Germany now faced a two-front war scenario
• Entente Cordiale occurred in 1904 (Britain-France)
• Britain moved away from isolation
• The Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia in 1907) occurred, Germany became encircled
• These events Increased tensions between alliances and rigid alliances meant crises escalated faster

Foreign Policy of Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1914)

• Introduction: Transition from Bismarck to Wilhelm II
• Bismarck (1871–1890) used Cautious Realpolitik, Maintained balance through Alliances and Limited overseas ambitions
• Whereas, Wilhelm II (1890–1914) used Aggressive Weltpolitik, Ended Reinsurance Treaty, and Sought overseas empire
• Bismarck Focused on continental power whereas Wilhelm II Built a navy to challenge Britain which Provoked Britain through naval race & colonial disputes

Domestic Factors Influencing Foreign Policy

• Political System & Influence of the Military
• Germany was a semi-autocratic state as The Kaiser had supreme power over foreign policy:
• The Chancellor was accountable to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag
• Junker aristocracy & military elites had major influence
• Wilhelm II’s erratic leadership and Often bypassed the Reichstag in favor of military advisors, Sacked Bismarck in 1890 thus rejecting his diplomatic policies
• The Rise of militarism and Influence of the General Staff (led by von Moltke the Younger) increased
• The Germany army expanded from 500,000 (1890) to 800,000 (1914) and Annual military spending grew
• Economic Growth & Industrialization occurred as By 1900, Germany was the leading industrial power in Europe
• This Economic expansion led to foreign policy goals of Securing raw materials & markets which Increased competition with Britain & France over trade and empire
• Growth of Socialism
  • SPD (Social Democratic Party) became the largest party in the Reichstag (1912)
• Rise of Nationalist Groups:
  • Pan-German League (1891) pushed for German expansionism
  • Navy League (1898) pushed for naval buildup against Britain

Key Features of German Foreign Policy (1890-1914)

• 3.1. Weltpolitik (World Policy) and Expansionist, aggressive diplomacy
  • A desire to build an empire and challenged British naval dominance.
  • Effort to asserted influence in Morocco, the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire
• Naval Expansion & Anglo-German Rivalry
  • Initiated by Admiral Tirpitz to challenge the Royal Navy from 1898-1912
  • Dreadnought Arms Race (1906–1914) as launched the HMS Dreadnought

Breakdown of Alliances

• Russia turned to France and Germany faced a potential two-front war
• the Entente Cordiale resulted in Isolated Germany diplomatically
• This all Confirmed Germany's encirclement

Impact of German Foreign Policy on Other Countries

• Britain Naval Rivalry
• British response: "Two-Power Standard" policy (1890s) ensured its navy remained larger than the next two navies combined
• Colonial Tensions increased as Germany congratulated Boer resistance
• Loss of the Reinsurance Treaty (1890)
  • Resulted in Russia sought a new alliance, forming the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) Balkan Conflicts:
• Germany backed Austria, humiliating Russia in the Bosnian Crisis (1908)
• Austria saw Serbia as a threat. with the 1912-13: Balkan Wars
• The Austrian-Hungarian Closer to German ally (Dual Alliance, 1879)
• Thus, Wilhelm II Gaves Austria full support in attacking Serbia after the assassination which Directly led to the July Crisis & WWI

Key Crises Leading to WWI

• First Moroccan Crisis (1905-06) -Germany opposed French control in Morocco and isolated diplomatically
  • Austria annexed Bosnia, angering Serbia & Russia thus lead to World War I
• Germany backed Austria, warning Russia not to interfere Historiographical Perspectives
• Fritz Fischer claimed Germany Expansionist war aims & was responsible for WWI
• A.J.P. Taylor said that WWI an accident of alliances & military planning
• John Röhl thought that Wilhelm II's personal ambitions & militarism were key causes
• David Stevenson claimed that the arms race & aggressive diplomacy made war inevitable