EU History: Treaties, Crisis & UK's Role

History of European Integration

• Victor Hugo envisioned seamless travel across Europe, symbolizing unity
• The United States served as a model for Federalism and Continental power
  • Federalism: individual states maintain autonomy while cooperating under a national government.
  • Europe considered a similar structure, with nation-states relinquishing sovereignty.
  • Continental power: European nations wanted the same collective ability for global power.
• After World War I, the Pan-Europa Movement advocated European federalism to prevent war, envisioning a "United States of Europe."
• The Pan-European Movement (1923), founded by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, promoted European unity to prevent conflict and encourage democracy.
• Winston Churchill advocated for European integration to prevent conflict, especially between Germany and France, exemplified by the Treaty of Dunkirk.
• Resistance against Nazi Germany laid the foundation for post-war collaboration.
• David Mitrany, a British political scientist, introduced functionalism, suggesting cooperation in areas like trade and technology to promote political unity.
• He believed practical collaboration would build cross-border trust, leading to lasting peace.

After the Second World War

• 1946: Churchill's speech at Zurich University advocated for a "United States of Europe" to ensure lasting peace.
• 1947: France and Britain signed the Treaty of Dunkirk, a military alliance in case of threat.
• 1948: The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established to coordinate U.S. financial aid under the Marshall Plan
  • It stimulated cooperation among European nations and laid the groundwork for economic integration by distributing aid collectively.
• 1948: The Congress of Europe in The Hague, chaired by Winston Churchill, advocated federalism and European unity.
  • It provided momentum for European integration by envisioning a unified and cooperative future.
• The Congress had three objectives
  • Demonstrating public support for European unity
  • Discussing challenges and practical solutions for governments
  • Giving new impetus to the international publicity campaign
• The Congress suggested the creation of institutions such as the European Centre for Culture, College of Europe, Council of Europe, and the European Convention on Human Rights.
• 1948: The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, underscoring Cold War tensions and the need for a united Western response, which later became NATO.
• 1948: The Treaty of Brussels, a mutual defense agreement, was signed by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the UK against threats like Germany and the Soviet Union.
  • The BeNeLux nations joined the Treaty of Dunkirk to strengthen Western European defense, evolving into the Western European Union in 1954 for collective security.
• 1949: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed for collective security against Soviet aggression.
  • It solidified the military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and European nations, aiming to deter Soviet expansion through mutual commitments and strategic planning.
• 1949: The Statute of the Council of Europe was signed, establishing a framework for human rights and democracy.
  • This led to the creation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) under the European Convention on Human Rights, allowing individuals to bring cases against governments for human rights violations.

Founding the European Communities

• 1950: The Schuman Declaration proposed pooling coal and steel production under a supranational authority to prevent future wars by integrating economies to make war between France and Germany impossible.
• 1951: This idea led to the Treaty of Paris
  • Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) among France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.
• 1952: The European Defence Community (EDC) was signed, aiming to create a pan-European military force under supranational control to counter Soviet aggression; however, it was rejected by the French Parliament in 1954.
• 1953: A draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC) was adopted, but it failed when the EDC failed.
• 1954: The Western European Union (WEU) was established to coordinate European defense and security policies.
• 1955: Western Germany acceded to NATO
• 1957: The Treaty of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) in 1958, signaling a shift toward economic integration with France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
• 1959: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established with Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.
  • The 'inner Six' (EEC members) pursued economic and political union, while the 'outer Seven' (EFTA members) preferred economic collaboration only.

Years of Crisis

• 1963, January 22: The Elysée Treaty was signed, marking a Franco-German friendship for reconciliation and bilateral cooperation to support European integration.
  • January 22, 2019: The Aachen Treaty was signed by France and Germany to renew reconciliation and strengthen bilateral cooperation
• 1963: The UK, Denmark, Ireland, and Norway applied for membership, but the UK was rejected twice by French President De Gaulle due to fears that British accession would undermine European integration; Norway voted against joining in a 1972 referendum.
• 1965: The Empty Chair Crisis began over a proposal for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and lasted 7 months
  • French President De Gaulle disagreed with the proposal, believing it threatened national sovereignty and France boycotted the Council of Ministers, halting EU decision-making.
• 1966: Resolved decision-making conflicts by allowing member states to veto proposals threatening their vital national interests → Still in use

Deepening and Widening Integration

• 1973: The EU underwent its first enlargement, with the UK, Denmark, and Ireland joining.
• 1975: The UK held its first referendum on EU membership, with 67% voting to remain.
• 1981: Margaret Thatcher's speech at the College of Europe emphasized Britain's commitment to European cooperation but rejected centralized power in Brussels and foreshadowed the tensions that would culminate in Brexit.
• 1985: The UK rebate, a financial mechanism negotiated by Margaret Thatcher, reduced British contributions to the EU budget due to the UK's relatively low return from EU agricultural subsidies.
• Two schools of thought on how the EU could develop exist:
  • Deepening: Intensification of integration processes and structures, acquiring collective pandemic debt
  • Widening: Enlargement of the EU may also denote the increasing scope of Community or Union competences, Albania or North Macedonia Accession

Deepening of European Integration

• 1985: The European Council agreed to establish a Single Market.
• 1986: The Single European Act was signed and entered into force in July 1987
• 1992 --Established the Single Market and Treaty basis for European Political Cooperation (EPC).
• 1993: The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union Goals:
  • Expanding the scope of European integration
  • Reforming the EC's institutions and decision-making procedures
  • Initiating cooperation on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Justice and Home Affairs (JHA).
• Three pillars
  • The EEC (EMU), ECSC, and Euratom into the European Union
  • Common Foreign and Security Policy
  • Justice and Home Affairs

Amsterdam Treaty

• 1997: The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1997 and entered into force in May 1999. It added the establishment of an area of freedom, security, and justice (AFSJ) to the EU's objectives, shifted much of Justice and Home Affairs activity from Pillar III into Pillar I, and incorporated Schengen cooperation into EU law
• Police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters remained in Pillar III, and the UK, Ireland, and Denmark gained several opt-outs, leading to increasing differentiation.
• 1999: Stage III of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) happened
• 2002: Introduction of the euro.

Nice treaty

• 2001: The Treaty of Nice was signed and entered into force in February 2003, aiming to reform the EU's institutional structure to withstand the challenges of the new enlargement.
• Introduced weighted voting in the Council, decreasing MS power. MS get a number of votes depending on the size of population, weighted voting ensures that smaller countries have a higher relative share of votes to its size, ensuring their voices are heard The Nice Treaty was meant as a temporary solution, European Parliament seats increased to 732, and its powers were increased.

Future of Europe

• 2001-2004: Debate was launched
• 2004: Treaty establishing a Constitution was signed, but failed due to France & Netherlands referendums
• 2007: They signed the Lisbon Treaty
• Instead signed Lisbon Treaty (2007) instead, entered into force December 2009 Altered and renamed the Treaty establishing the European Community into the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) EU Charter of the Fundamental Rights was made a binding legal element Streamlined decision-making Clauses President of the EU was included but it was used instead of High Representative of Foreign Minister.

Widening of European Integration

• 1973: First enlargement was when the UK, Ireland (neutral), and Denmark joined.→First group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association.
• 1981: Second enlargement was when Greece (crisis) joined
• 1987: Third was Spain and Portugal joining (trade openings to Latin America)Turkish application, failed
• 1995: Fourth enlargement, Austria, Finland, and Sweden, Second group of members to access from the European Free Trade Association
• 2004: Fifth Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenian → Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs).
• 2007:Bulgaria and Romania
• 2013: Croatia was first after the crisis

Widening and Deepening EU

• Each group accession is followed by a New treaty for deeper recognition
• Outside cooperation can occur
  • Schengen (Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, Switzerland)
• Candidate countries --Albania, the Republic of North Macedonia, Montenegro,Serbia and Turkey, Ukraine & Moldova. Potential are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Georgia

Current EU Crises

• EU is currently facing renewed conflict, challenges European StabilityWar back in Europe The UK removed a nuclear power because of Brexit, and eurozone crisis Migration and Pandemic are also having an effect

HC3 Theorising European Integration

• The EU is a political system
  • an Unidentified Political Object (UPO), a 'nature of the beast'discussion sui generis - unique in itself.

Which concepts help us categorize our knowledge about the EU?

• Is there solidarity among European nation-states? Just study one?
• Power sharing among political institutions in a multi-level system?
• Goal: impossible to start a warEU one of the centers of global power.

The Relationship Between the EU and Member States

• The EU draws from historical forms of governance nation-states , empires and colonies while remaining unique Statehood (E. Gellner):Reflects on how the EU is built upon and traditional forms Imagined Community (B. Anderson):much like nations, collective identity borders. Symbiosis vs. Rivalry (P. Taylor):mutual benefit governance forms like empires. Sovereignty (A. Milward): While governance often power,enhanced by integration realities.

1992: Maastricht Treaty

• Maastricht Treaty marked the formal start of the EU European nation-states, whose economies too small to compete formed relation to strengthen global presence -- only exist if the form it exists

Characteristics that helped shape the EU

Federalism advocates for a strong federalist characteristics in treatie often fail ratification to national movement is a driving force of integration Intergovernmentalism power should remain (Stanley national especially in nationally sensitive areas ( army, money) Integration in practice:better organised or to avoid the inStates delegate them, avoid sensitive

Andrei Moravacsiks theories of intergovernmentalism

Andrew Moravcsik's theory 'preferences of power' emphasises

• The importance of national interests to defend and promote intergovernmentally?
• The importance of Delegation of for institutions through interstate agreements
• Balance national and states for intergrating deeply while safeguarding key

4. Functionalism and Neo-functionalism

Functionalism (David Mitrany - Promoting technique

Neofunctionalism

Ernst Haas - builds for cooperationin others (Euro-)bureaucrats become by which stimulatesfurther integration, Formational interests) Initiallylimits integration.

Predictions of Neo-functionalism

Economic benefits all leads to political integration of supranational interests

Europeanization

Constructivist view EUpolicy making occure through Bottom-up Uploading: shape EUrules based on their Top-down Downloading rules

Norm internalization,multi level geverance,

EU is separate from internal and goverment level Subsitiary principles

Institutions of the EU

Functions. Commission executive Functions second Protector of

The commission,EU,Council

European Parliament (EP)

Represented citizens of EU Court of Justice of decisions, Subsidiary Insitiutions euron affairs and security

What Does EU Law?

The EU found treaties or the Secoand Legistlation throughs New member must fully to no opt out

Pillar Stucture of EU

First pillar communites with with the legistlation, Second pillar is with the intergovemtnal

Decision making procedures and types of EU secondary Law

1.dominat method of legislation 2.Inergovernmental member states primary,limited authority

• Opern medhod of cooperation Member report of on targets 1.regulation by countries 2.Directive by countries Decisions opinions political recomendations

HC 4 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

Economic integration over time with other countires Free tafe area elimated tariffa but maintains its customs added Market Union harmonize their union governming

Single Market

began with treaty aimied at and set the by freemovement goods with Cecinhini cost of the common market

Integration in practice Removiving fiscal and other Common Global stasndards of market

Key Rulings

Dutch company violated Direct effect by state EU law states in

The eurosystem with fixed exchange rates

Stages of EMU

capital economic convergance of with of currency

To join the EMU

maastricht criteria such as intrest,budget,debt and stability such as lithuana meeting or of not meeting the

HC 6 migration

Migration crisis’ of 2015 and agena

largescale system refugees over burdens on member state and integration for 1.EU -Turkey deal to limit the influx of irredgular 2.Trust for african and syrial crisis

• safe county listing*

HC 7 - Common Foreign and Security Policy of the EU

1970s: European Political Cooperation (EPC)

• Initiated during the Cold War's détente period
• German initiative to improve relations with the Soviet Union.
• Part of Detente and aimed to improve communication, trade with the east and promote peace and stability in a divided Europe
• Joined in 1973, apeal and its role with in Western europe both and economically

Lome Agreements with ACP countries:

• Signed in 1975, the - agreements with aec,acp countries

1970s Petrol Crisis

Vulnerability to external a coordinated foreign policy