Ethics Overview and Key Theories

The systematic philosophical study of action. Evaluates whether action is right or wrong, focusing on justifications for those assessments.

The most abstract level of ethical inquiry, asking general questions like 'what is good?'

Focuses on establishing philosophical foundations for moral duties and their nature, considering potential flaws within moral judgments itself.

Applies theories from meta-ethics and normative ethics to specific contexts like healthcare, business, or military.

The claim that all human action is driven by self-interest, neglecting external factors.

The claim that people ought to act in their own self-interest.

The idea that there are no universal moral standards, only individual or cultural ones.

Focuses on the study of actions, exploring their moral implications and seeking to establish ethical principles for guiding behavior.

The idea that land has intrinsic value beyond its economic worth, and that humans should have a moral responsibility to protect it.

The 'cleavage' describes the division between people who see land as a resource for profit (A) and those who see it as a complex ecosystem (B).

Protecting natural spaces while accepting some human interaction, like responsible agriculture or forestry.

Protecting natural spaces with the goal of maintaining their original state, often limiting human activities.

A radical shift in our understanding of ourselves and our relationship with nature, emphasizing emotional connection and respect.

The idea that we can expand our sense of self to include other living beings, fostering empathy and shared interests.

A philosophy that emphasizes the wisdom and interconnectedness of nature, seeking to understand and act in harmony with it.

The idea that ecosystems are not just collections of individual species, but complex, integrated wholes with their own internal logic and balance.

The theory that the Earth is a self-regulating system, where living organisms and their environment interact to maintain a stable and habitable state.

The idea that humans should sacrifice luxurious or unnecessary needs in order to protect the environment and maintain a sustainable relationship with nature.

A moral philosophy that judges the rightness or wrongness of an action based solely on its consequences.

A type of consequentialism that aims to maximize overall welfare or happiness for all beings affected by an action.

The principle that all beings affected by an action are considered equally in terms of their welfare.

A type of utilitarian approach that focuses on maximizing happiness by considering the consequences of following rules.

A type of utilitarian approach that focuses on maximizing happiness by considering the specific consequences of each individual action.

A moral philosophy that emphasizes the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions based on duty and principles, regardless of their consequences.

A moral principle formulated by Immanuel Kant that states that one should act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

A moral principle that emphasizes treating all individuals as ends in themselves, with inherent worth and dignity, and not merely as means to an end.

A philosophical framework that explores the origins and justification of social and political order by examining agreements between individuals.

A thought experiment used to determine the principles of justice by imagining individuals making decisions behind a veil that prevents them from knowing their own social position, abilities, or personal characteristics.

A moral theory that focuses on the development of good character traits (virtues) through habitual practice and living in accordance with reason and wisdom.

The state of human flourishing and living well, achieved through the pursuit of excellence in character and conduct.

The idea that a being has moral standing when its existence and interests have intrinsic moral value, requiring consideration and protection.

The view that only humans have intrinsic moral worth, meaning that the interests and well-being of non-human beings are only valuable insofar as they relate to human interests.

The value something possesses independently of its usefulness or relation to other entities.

The view that all living things are equal in terms of their rights or inherent value, except in certain situations where human needs may override those rights.

A situation where human needs, such as survival, can override the rights of other living things.

The viewpoint of humans as members of the Earth's community of life, sharing equal standing with other species.

The concept of the Earth's natural ecosystems as a complex web of interconnected elements, each playing a role in the functioning of the whole.

The idea that each individual organism has its own purpose and intrinsic value, pursuing its own unique good.

Claims based on human standards and perspectives, often used to justify human dominance over other species.

A view that prioritizes entire ecosystems as the primary objects of moral concern.

The idea that moral concern should be focused on those capable of experiencing psychological states like pleasure and pain.

The view that individual plants and animals are the primary objects of moral concern.

A geographically specific collection of plants, animals, and non-living elements interacting together.

The totality of all interlocking ecosystems on Earth.

An ethic that expands the boundaries of moral concern to include the land community, comprising soils, water, plants, animals, and the land itself.

A biotic mechanism, with the land providing energy through food chains and returning energy through death and decay.

A term used to describe something written in a highly complimentary and often overly positive way. It is often used in relation to historical figures or events.

Human-made changes to the land that are rapid and drastic, potentially leading to degradation of the ecosystem.

The idea that some specific quality of a species makes it bearers alone the possessors of moral standing (usually humans).

Singer argues that we should extend the principle of equality to all sentient beings, regardless of species.

Utilitarianism holds that the best action is the one that maximizes happiness for the greatest number of people. In this context, it implies that animal interests should be considered when making ethical decisions.

Singer argues that moral consideration should be based on the capacity to suffer, not on factors like rationality or moral autonomy.

A movement that opposes the mistreatment of animals, often drawing parallels with the abolition of slavery.

The view that some animals, particularly non-human animals, have intrinsic value and rights that should not be violated.

Tom Regan argues that animals with a sense of self, goals, and projects deserve moral consideration as "Subjects-of-a-Life."

A framework that proposes extending citizenship rights to domesticated animals, recognizing their dependence on humans.

A framework for wild animals that recognizes their right to sovereignty and autonomy within their natural habitats.

Animals that live among humans but are not domesticated, such as rats, squirrels, or crows.

Liminal animals have the status of 'denizens,' meaning they are protected from human violence and abuse but don't enjoy full citizenship rights.

Singer's view on moral consideration is based on the capacity to suffer, which serves as the foundation for having needs and interests.

Mill suggests that different beings experience pleasure in different ways, suggesting a more complex view of moral consideration compared to Singer.

Reagan believes that moral consideration should be granted to those with a sense of self, projects, and a capacity to suffer, setting a higher threshold than Singer and Mill.

The dilemma that prioritizing animal welfare in the wild might require significant changes to natural environments, potentially conflicting with environmental values.

The view that certain entities, such as natural objects, should possess legal rights, allowing them to be represented in court and have their interests protected.

An example from Christopher Stone’s argument for legal rights for nature, where a polluted stream cannot sue to protect itself. Instead, it can only be represented by another human or entity.

A guardian or representative who can bring legal action on behalf of a natural object, such as a polluted stream, in court.

The principle that a court should consider the harm done to a natural object, not just the harm to humans, when deciding legal relief.

The idea that legal solutions should benefit the natural object directly, such as repairing a polluted stream, rather than just compensating humans who are affected.

A fund created to protect the environment, ensuring that pollution only occurs when its benefits outweigh the costs, including those to nature.

The ability to use a legal system to benefit nature, rather than only humans, potentially leading to a more just relationship with the environment.

Article in the Ecuadorian Constitution that recognizes the rights of nature, granting it the right to exist and regenerate.

The right of all individuals, communities, and nations to pursue legal action to enforce the rights of nature.

Incentives offered by the state to encourage individuals, businesses, and communities to protect nature and respect ecosystems.

The obligation for individuals, businesses, and the state to compensate for damage to nature, including restoring the affected ecosystems.

The question of whether ecosystems have “interests” in the same way that humans do, considering their lack of sentience and ability to suffer pain.

The idea that an object’s function or purpose can be seen as its “interest,” such as a knife’s purpose to cut.

The argument that a living object's primary function is to stay alive, suggesting that its interest lies in those actions that promote its survival.