Ethics, Morality and Justice

• Ethics are the moral principles that govern behavior or activities.
• Morality refers to the principles distinguishing right from wrong, or good from bad.
• Morals are personal beliefs on right and wrong; ethics are societal/professional conduct guidelines.
• Social conventions are norms, but not all norms are social conventions.
• Social conventions are arbitrary rules coordinating behavior, like saying "thank you" or using table manners, existing because people agree to them.
• Norms are broader societal standards including moral, legal, and social conventions.

Types of Justice

• Retributive justice involves accountability and punishment, aiming to restore an individual's rights.
• Procedural justice applies fairness in decision-making and dispute resolution processes.
• Distributive justice involves fairly distributing resources, benefits, and burdens within a group.
• Restorative justice repairs harm from wrongdoing and restores relationships via mediation/reconciliation.

Judaism

• Judaism is an ancient, Abrahamic, monotheistic religion and way of life for Jewish people.
• Judaism is characterized by belief in one God, a covenant, and adherence to the Torah, laws, and traditions.
• Monotheistic means believing in only one God.

The Tanakh

• The Tanakh is the canonical collection of Jewish scriptures in three parts:
  • Torah (Law/Teaching): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
  • Nevi'im (Prophets): Includes Joshua, Samuel, Isaiah.
  • Ketuvim (Writings): Includes Psalms, Proverbs, Chronicles.
• The Tanakh is similar to the Old Testament, but order and interpretation may differ.

The Talmud

• The Talmud is a central Jewish text with discussions of Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history.
• It explains the Tanakh and Mishnah
• The Mishnah is the written collection of Jewish oral law compiled around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah the Prince.
• The Gemara contains rabbinic discussions/interpretations of the Mishnah, completed between 400-500 CE.

Talmud Versions

• The Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) is widely studied and compiled in Babylon (modern Iraq).
• The Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) was compiled in the Land of Israel, but is less complete.
• The Talmud is a key source of Jewish law (Halakha) and philosophy, shaping Jewish thought for centuries via debates on legal, ethical, and theological topics.
• A synagogue is a place of worship and instruction for Jewish people.
• Islam is a religion of Muslims with a belief in one God.
• A Mosque/masjid is a Muslim place of worship
• The Quran/Koran is the sacred book believed to be God's word dedicated to Muhammad by Gabriel and written in Arabic.
• Hadith is a collection of traditions containing sayings of Prophet Muhammad which are a guidance source apart from the Quran/Koran.
• Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam (85-90% of Muslims).
• Sunni Muslims follow the Qur'an, Sunnah (practices of Prophet Muhammad), and the consensus of the Muslim community (ijma).

Key Sunni Beliefs

• Tawhid (Oneness of God) is absolute monotheism: belief in Allah as the only deity.
• Prophethood is the acceptance of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as the final messenger of God.
• Qur'an and Hadith: The Qur'an acts as guidance, with Hadith clarifying Islamic teachings.
• The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs are believed to be the rightful leaders after Prophet Muhammad's death (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali).
• The Six Articles of Faith include belief in Allah, angels, holy books (Qur'an, Torah, Gospel, Psalms), prophets, the Day of Judgment, and Qadar (Divine Predestination).
• Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith that states there's no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.
• Kantian ethics, developed by Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), is a deontological (duty-based) ethical theory.
• It emphasizes moral duty, rationality, and the inherent dignity of individuals rather than consequences.

Key Principles of Kantian Ethics

• Moral actions must follow universal principles in all situations.
• The Universalizability Principle dictates acting according to maxims which should become universal law (if everyone did this, would it be good?).
• The Humanity Principle states to treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means (don't use people selfishly).
• The Autonomy Principle dictates acting so that your will can regard itself as making universal law through its maxims, acting as a rational moral legislator.
• Moral actions are performed out of duty, not personal desires.
• A good will is the only thing that is good in itself.
• Kant rejects consequentialism, and argues some actions (lying, killing) are always wrong.

Criticism of Kantian Ethics

• Kantian Ethics is too rigid, and doesn't allow for exceptions or consequences and maxims are complex.
• Lying is always wrong as it causes breakdown of trust.
• Refusing to help others, if universalized, leads to a world where no one helps anyone, which is irrational.
• Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory determining right/wrong based on maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.
• It was developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).

Core Principles of Utilitarianism

• The Greatest Happiness Principle states action is morally right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
• Consequentialism judges morality based on consequences, not intentions/duty (unlike Kantian ethics).
• Impartiality: Everyone’s happiness is equally important, regardless of personal factors.

Types of Utilitarianism

• Act Utilitarianism (Bentham): Each action should be individually judged on whether it maximizes happiness (lying is normally wrong, but is morally right if saving a life).
• Rule Utilitarianism (Mill): Follow rules that generally maximize happiness (lying is wrong because trust would collapse if everyone lied).

Comparing Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism

Focus

• Kantian Ethics (deontological) focuses on following moral duties/principles while regardless of consequences.
• An action is moral if it adheres to a universal principle/duty (honesty, respect).
• Lying is always morally wrong, even when saving someone's life.
• Utilitarianism (consequentialist) focuses on maximizing happiness/pleasure and minimizing suffering.
• Lying is justified if it leads to greater happiness or prevents harm.

Moral Decision-Making

• Kantian ethics are guided by categorical imperatives.
  • Morality of actions depends on whether the action can be a universal law.
  • Intentions and duty are most important.
  • The agent must tell the truth, regardless of the situation.
• Utilitarianism evaluates the consequences of each action
  • Right choices results in the greatest overall happiness for the greatest number.
  • The outcome is what matters.
  • Lying to save someone's life brings more happiness than telling the truth.

Decision-Making Process

• Kantian Ethics makes decisions based on moral absolutes
  • Some actions are always right or wrong.
  • Lying is always wrong.
• Utilitarianism bases rightness on producing the best outcome
  • The morality flexibility allows exceptions if overall well-being improves.
  • Lying is morally acceptable if it produces a better outcome for the majority.

Key Moral Concepts

• Kantian Ethics
  • Duty, moral law, universalizability (act as if it were universal law).
  • Focuses on respecting human dignity.
• Utilitarianism
  • Happiness, utility, pleasure, and pain.
  • Focus on maximizing overall well-being.

Strengths and Criticisms

• Kantian Ethics
  • Strengths: Clear moral guidelines, individual rights.
  • Criticisms: Too rigid, no exceptions possible.
• Utilitarianism
  • Strengths: Practical, flexible, maximizes overall well-being.
  • Criticisms: Justifies harmful actions; happiness is subjective.

Example Comparison

• Kantian Ethics
  • A friend asks if they look good in their outfit, but they do not
  • Tell the truth because honesty is a duty.
• Utilitarianism
  • A friend asks if they look good in their outfit, but they do not
  • May lie if it makes your friend happier.

The Categorical Imperative

• The Categorical Imperative is determined by whether actions could be universalized.
• It is a universal moral law followed regardless of personal desires.
• It is unconditional and applies to all rational beings.

The Formula of Universal Law

• "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law."
• Only act in a way that's acceptable if everyone acted similarly.
• Lying is wrong as universal lying would break down trust.

The Formula of Humanity

• "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, and never merely as a means."
• Do not use someone merely as a tool to achieve your own ends and respect dignity.
• Lying to get something from them violates this.

The Formula of Autonomy

• "Act only so that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims."
• Actions should respect the rational capacity of all human beings to act as moral agents.
• Ex: The breaking of promises undermines their keeping and is therefore immoral.
• Helping others promotes mutual respect and is a morally right action.
• It is universal, unconditional and objective.
• It emphasizes the ability to reason and legislate moral laws.