Ethics in Research

Research Methods

• Research is a disciplined inquiry and/or systematic investigation to extend knowledge. The method, results, and conclusions should withstand scrutiny within the relevant research community.
• Research has three key characteristics: challenges the status quo, is creative, and is systematic.

Characteristics of (Experimental) Science

• Systematic: Following a planned approach.
• Public: Research findings and methods are shared publicly.
• Peer review: Research is reviewed by experts in the field.
• Empirical testing: Based on observation and experimentation.
• Experimental control: Modifying variables, to different degrees.
• Probabilistic knowledge: Results are not absolute.
• Can never prove anything completely: Results are likely, but not certain
• Replication: Ensuring results can be reproduced.
• No one study answers every question: Research is a continuing process.
• Objective: Unbiased.
• Neutral: Without personal bias.

Model of Scientific Thought

• Scientific thought is cyclical.
• The model shows the relationship between facts and theory.
• Inductive reasoning (theory development) moves from facts to theory
• Deductive reasoning (theory testing) is from theory to facts.

Good Theories

• Account for existing data.
• Provide explanatory value.
• Provide predictive value.
• Are testable.
• Are parsimonious (simple).
• Are efficient (only as complicated as necessary).
• Are tentative and modified as new evidence arises.

Research Question/Hypotheses

• Hypothesis: Predicts a relationship between variables. Assumes other relationships are possible.
• Research Question: Does not predict a relationship.
• Both (Hypothesis and Research Question): Often specifically focused and testable.

Research Question Development

• The progression follows: Topic, Problem, Theory, Question. The question is often found at the end of the introduction.

Ethics in Science

• Research ethics is crucial for ensuring ethical conduct.
• Researchers should pursue relevant and meaningful questions, use sound research practices, and report honestly.
• Avoiding plagiarism and managing conflicts of interest are critical ethical considerations.
• Researchers should consider society's impact, and study outcomes and implications.

Research vs Practice

• Intent: New knowledge (unknown benefit) versus treatment (assumed benefit)
• Innovation: Novelty in practice versus accepted practice.
• Plan: Consistency versus individualized approach.

Research Ethics Boards (REB)

• Definition: Groups in an institution that review research proposals involving human participants.
• Roles: REBs approve, reject, or propose changes to proposals based on ethical principles. They may audit, terminate or otherwise manage research.

Reviews (REB considerations)

• Research involving human subjects includes: human participants, human biological materials or data.
• Dalhousie REBs (institution) include: Health Sciences, Social Sciences & Humanities Research Ethics Boards. Also a separate board for animal research.

What Doesn't Need an REB Review

• Research not involving human subjects or publicly available information about living individuals.
• Naturalistic observations (non-staged)
• No personally identifying information or data.
• No reasonable expectation of privacy.
• Secondary use of anonymous data.
• Quality assurance, performance, or normal education/clinical requirements.

REB Reviews (focus)

• Balances rights and welfare of participants with the experimenter's right to seek knowledge.
• Focus on attainment of ethical principles, scientific merit, minimization of risk and benefits ratios.
• The recruitment process, informed consent, deception, storage & management, and confidentiality are assessed.

Important Concepts

• Respect human rights and dignity
• Morally acceptable ends and means
• Respect for persons and community
• Free and informed consent
• Respect for the vulnerable and recognition of traditionally exploited groups.
• Respect for privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity.
• Risk Benefit Analysis
• Benevolence
• Non-maleficence
• Justice
• Fairness
• Inclusivity

Tri-Council

• Online course on ethics for researchers involving human participants and REB members (link provided).

Research Paradigms

• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Single-subject

Assumptions of Research Paradigms

• Quantitative: Single, objective researcher, independent and dependent variables, influences do not affect the researcher, desirable generalizability from sample to population, causal relationship, value-free.
• Qualitative: Multiple, constructed realities, dependent and independent variables, but researcher influences, specific, situation, non-generalizable to population, correlation, value-bound.
• Single-subject: Single, objective researcher, single or few individual subjects, independent and dependent variables, may be specific, non-generalizable, correlational, value-free

Research Methods (Quantitative, Qualitative, Single Subject) - Table

• Method (Theory, Number of participants, etc.). and relevant details for each (e.g., Quantitative: A priori, groups, random selection).

Research Types

• Experimental vs. observational/descriptive/non-experimental
• Experimental (something has been manipulated): experimental group, quasi-experimental group; groups are preexisting, single subject designs, examples (e.g., Head injuries).
• Descriptive research (No manipulation): developmental, normative, correlational & predictive, qualitative, case study
• Describing the nature of unique case without manipulating anything.

Research Types (Basic Clinical/Applied)

• Basic research: used to develop, define, test theories, not motivated by practical application(for knowledge's sake), may have implications.
• Clinical or applied research: directed to an immediate problem.

Variables

• Independent: Manipulated by the experimenter.
• Dependent: Influenced by the independent variable.
• Confounding/Extraneous: Varied, but not the study focus, can affect results. Control these variables where possible.

Variables (details)

• Operational definition: How a variable is measured in the study.
• Reliability: Consistency of measurements.
• Validity: Accuracy in representing the variable.

Experimental Validity

• Internal validity: Confidence that a change in the dependent variable is caused by the independent variable (control of extraneous factors).
• Threats to internal validity: History, maturation, testing effects, instrumentation, statistical regression to the mean, participant selection & assignment, subject attrition, diffusion or imitation of treatment, compensatory equalization of treatment, compensatory rivalry or resentful demoralization, experimenter expectancies, (Items in the list under construct validity)
• External validity: How well the study results can be generalized to other populations and settings (generalizability).
• Threats to external validity: Selection of participants, reactive testing, setting, time, multiple treatment interactions.

Test your knowledge on ethical considerations in research involving human subjects. This quiz covers topics such as informed consent, ethical reviews, and principles guiding research practices. Ensure you understand the rights and responsibilities in research ethics.