Ethics and Morality Overview

Morality

• Morality involves how we should live, guided by reason and impartiality.
• Key cases like Baby Theresa, Jodie and Mary, and Tracy Latimer highlight ethical dilemmas regarding organ donation, conjoined twins, and mercy killing, respectively.

Cultural Relativism

• Cultural Relativism posits that morality is dependent on culture, lacking universal truths.
• Critiques include the flawed Cultural Differences Argument, as disagreement doesn't negate objective truth.
• It also impedes ethical progress and can justify harmful practices like excision.

Ethical Subjectivism

• Simple Subjectivism states that moral statements merely express personal opinions.
• Emotivism suggests moral language expresses emotions, with little room for rational judgment.
• Moral judgments necessitate logical reasoning beyond personal feelings.

Morality and Religion

• Divine Command Theory (DCT) argues morality is based on God's commands, facing issues of arbitrariness and lacking independent moral reasoning.
• Natural Law Theory proposes morality arises from natural order, accessible through reason, independent of religion.
• Religious texts sometimes lack clarity on modern ethical challenges.

Ethical Egoism

• Psychological Egoism (incorrect) claims people act solely for self-interest.
• Ethical Egoism (incorrect) suggests we ought to act in self-interest, facing criticisms of promoting unethical behaviour and logical flaws.

Social Contract Theory

• Social Contract Theory (Hobbes) argues morality arises from agreements for peace and cooperation.
• Advantages include explaining moral rules as rational compromises for mutual benefit, and justifying punishment.
• Critiques highlight its limitations in addressing obligations to non-contracting entities (animals, future generations).

Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism prioritizes maximizing overall happiness in actions.
• Applications include justifying euthanasia (reducing suffering), advocating for marijuana use (if it maximises happiness without significant harm), and advocating for animal welfare (challenging speciesism).
• Critiques include neglecting justice, rights, and backward-looking reasons. It can be excessively demanding, potentially undermining personal relationships.

Absolute Moral Rules

• Kant's Categorical Imperative proposes acting based on universal principles that avoid contradiction.
• The principle of lying being always wrong faces challenges from practical dilemmas (e.g., saving lives).
• Conflicts between absolute rules suggest their potential limitations.

Kant's Respect for Persons

• Kant emphasizes the inherent worth of human beings due to their rationality and autonomy.
• Treat others as ends, not merely as means, respecting their rights and choices.

Punishment (Retributivism vs. Utilitarianism)

• Retributivism (Kant) justifies punishment as deserved retribution for wrongdoing.
• Utilitarianism (Bentham) justifies punishment for maximizing societal happiness through deterrence and rehabilitation.