Ethics and Moral Theories Overview

Act-Utilitarianism

• Focuses on the consequences of actions affecting others
• Aims to maximize overall welfare

Applied Ethics

• Applies ethical theories (meta-ethics and normative ethics) to real-world situations
• Covers diverse areas like business, medicine, and the environment

Autonomy

• Ability to act based on self-legislated reasons

Categorical Imperative

• Moral duties/actions that must always be followed
• Exceptions only if prevention is unavoidable and not through one's fault

Consequentialism

• Morality of an action is determined solely by its consequences

Contractualism

• Morality grounded in agreements individuals would make in an impartial state (veil of ignorance)
• Impartiality ensured by equality and consideration of everyone's interests

Deontology

• Focus on the motives and duties behind actions
• Emphasizes adherence to rules and principles

Descriptive Claim

• Describes the world as it is, not how it should be

Ethical Egoism

• Actions are morally right if they serve one's own interests regardless of others

Ethical Relativism

• Rejection of universal moral standards
• Advocates for tolerance towards differing cultural practices

Hypothetical Imperative

• Conditioned command; binds an agent only under specific circumstances

Impermissible

• Morally prohibited or wrong actions

Maxim

• Description of an action and its intention, serving as a general principle

Meta-Ethics

• Investigates the nature of moral justification and assessment
• Explores concepts like "good," "right," "permissible," "impermissible"
• Examines the basis for moral reasons

Moral Skepticism

• Denies the existence of moral truths
• Believes knowledge of right and wrong is impossible

Normative Claim

• Statement about how the world ought to be

Normative Ethics

• Examines the foundations of moral principles and judgments

Original Position

• Theoretical device for impartial moral reasoning
• Individuals are unaware of their social status, economic position, etc.
• Designed to eliminate biases in moral judgments

Permissible

• Morally allowed or right actions

Phronesis

• Practical wisdom; ability to discern the correct course of action

Publicity Argument

• Moral principles should be public knowledge for accountability

Rule-Utilitarianism

• Right action aligns with rules promoting the best overall consequences

Social Contract Theory

• Morality derived from self-interested agreements among individuals

Supererogatory

• Actions exceeding the call of duty; not required but praiseworthy

Unity of the Virtues Thesis

• Possession of one virtue implies the presence of all virtues

Universalizability

• A maxim's capacity to become a universal law without contradictions

Utilitarianism

• Focuses on maximizing overall happiness or well-being

Veil of Ignorance

• Tool for impartial judgment, ignoring personal characteristics like socio-economic status

Virtue Ethics

• Actions are determined by the character and virtues of the agent

Moral Standing

Animal Welfarism

• Individual animals have primary value, not species or ecosystems

Anthropocentrism

• Only humans have intrinsic moral worth

Extrinsic Value

• Value derived from the usefulness of something

Intrinsic Value

• Value inherent in something's existence

Moral Standing

• Recognition of an entity's existence and interests, requiring consideration by others

Negative Right

• Right not to be interfered with or harmed

Positive Right

• Right to receive certain conditions for flourishing (e.g., healthcare)

Speciesism

• Discrimination against animals based on species

Biocentrism

Bioaccumulation

• Accumulation of chemical substances in organisms

Biocentric Egalitarianism

• Equal moral consideration for all living things

Biocentrism

• Belief that living things possess intrinsic value

Ecocentrism & Deep Ecology

Biosphere

• All interconnected ecosystems on Earth

Conservationism

• Protecting nature while allowing some human activity

Deep Ecology

• Radical shift in human consciousness concerning nature

Dynamic Equilibrium

• Balanced state between chaos and stasis

Ecocentrism

• Ecosystem as the primary focus of moral concern

Ecosystem

• Interacting biological and non-living components in a defined area

Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM)

• Approach to resource management integrating ecological knowledge

Gaia Theory

• Earth as a self-regulating super-organism

Individualism

• Individuals (plants or animals) as primary moral concern

Inertia

• Resistance to change within a system

Land Ethic

• Responsibility toward the whole biotic community

Preservationism

• Protecting nature in its pristine state

Psychocentrism

• Moral concern centered on psychological experiences

Resilience

• Ecosystem's ability to recover from disturbances

People and their Stance

Immanuel Kant

• Categorical imperative, extrinsic value of animals

Hobbes

• Social contract theory; morality arises from agreement

Rawls

• Contractualism, veil of ignorance, fairness

Aristotle

• Virtue ethics

Peter Singer

• Against speciesism, equal consideration for all sentient beings

Claire Jean Kim

• Abolitionist perspective on animal mistreatment

Bentham

• Equal consideration for the capacity to suffer

Tom Regan

• Intrinsic value and rights for non-human entities

Donaldson & Kymlicka

• Animal citizenship, wilderness animals

Christopher D. Stone

• Legal rights for natural objects

Paul Taylor

• Biocentric outlook, human equality with other living beings

Aldo Leopold

• Land ethic, importance of the land community

Arne Naess

• Deep ecological consciousness

James Lovelock

• Gaia hypothesis