Ethical Issues in Psychological Experiments

Research Methods

• Research is a systematic process involving data collection, analysis, and interpretation to answer specific questions, solve problems, or enhance understanding.
• Research uses rigorous methodologies to contribute new knowledge, confirm existing theories, or challenge established norms.

Significance of Research

• Advancement of Knowledge: Research expands knowledge by uncovering new facts, insights, and theories.
• Problem Solving: Research provides evidence-based solutions to real-world problems in various fields (e.g., health, education, technology, social sciences).
• Informed Decision-Making: Research guides decisions by policymakers, organizations, and individuals based on reliable and valid evidence.
• Innovation and Development: Research drives innovation through new technologies, products, and methodologies.
• Social Impact: Research addresses societal issues like poverty, inequality, and sustainability.
• Critical Thinking and Skepticism: Research fosters critical analysis and questioning of assumptions, encouraging evidence-based reasoning.
• Educational Development: Research in education identifies effective teaching strategies, learning methods, and assessment tools.

Types of Research (Based on Purpose)

• Basic (Fundamental) Research: Seeks to expand knowledge without immediate practical application.
  • Example: Exploring how memory works in the brain.
• Applied Research: Aims to solve specific practical problems.
  • Example: Developing a vaccine for a disease.

Types of Research (Based on Methodology)

• Quantitative Research: Focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis.
  • Uses structured tools (e.g., surveys, experiments)
  • Results are objective and replicable.
  • Example: Analyzing test scores to evaluate teaching effectiveness.
• Qualitative Research: Explores concepts, opinions, and experiences using non-numerical data.
  • Uses open-ended methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups).
  • Findings are subjective and descriptive.
  • Example: Understanding student perceptions of online learning.
• Mixed-Methods Research: Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches.
  • Aims to leverage the strengths of both methods for a comprehensive understanding.
  • Example: Examining survey data alongside focus groups to evaluate a training program.

Types of Research (Based on Time Frame)

• Cross-Sectional Research: Conducted at a single point in time.
  • Example: Studying the current prevalence of a disease.
• Longitudinal Research: Conducted over an extended period.
  • Example: Tracking student academic progress over several years.

Types of Research (Based on Control and Setting)

• Experimental Research: Involves manipulating variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new teaching method in a classroom.
• Non-Experimental Research: Observes variables without manipulation.
  • Example: Exploring correlations or descriptive insights.

Types of Research (Based on Field of Study)

• Social Science Research: Examines human behavior and societies.
• Scientific Research: Focuses on natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry).
• Educational Research: Investigates teaching methods and learning processes.
• Market Research: Analyzes consumer behavior and market trends.

Types of Research (Based on Approach)

• Descriptive Research: Describes characteristics or phenomena.
  • Example: Surveying student preferences.
• Exploratory Research: Investigates areas with limited information.
  • Example: Studying the impact of AI on teaching.
• Explanatory (Causal) Research: Examines cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Example: Testing how study time affects exam performance.
• Evaluative Research: Assesses program, policy, or intervention effectiveness.
  • Example: Evaluating a new curriculum.

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study.
• Confidentiality and Privacy: Protecting participant information.
• Avoidance of Harm: Minimizing physical, psychological, or emotional harm.
• Integrity and Honesty: Presenting findings truthfully.
• Respect for Autonomy: Respecting participant decisions.
• Beneficence: Prioritizing benefits and minimizing harm.
• Justice: Fair distribution of research benefits and burdens.
• Research with Vulnerable Populations (e.g., children, elderly): Implementing extra precautions.
• Plagiarism and Academic Misconduct: Avoiding plagiarism and following ethical standards.
• Dual Use of Research: Awareness of potential for harmful uses.
• Environmental Impact: Ensuring sustainability.
• Use of Animals in Research: Minimizing animal suffering by following ethical guidelines (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).

Historical Reports of Ethical Issues in Research (Examples)

• Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Unethical withholding of treatment from participants.
• Nazi Medical Experiments: Extreme harm to human subjects, lack of informed consent.
• Milgram Obedience Experiment: Psychological stress on participants.
• Stanford Prison Experiment: Abuse of power in a simulated prison environment.
• Henrietta Lacks and the HeLa Cells: Ethical concerns regarding informed consent and use of human tissue.
• The Guatemala Syphilis Experiments: Deliberate infection with syphilis.
• Willowbrook Hepatitis Study: Unethical infection of children with hepatitis.

Impact on Research Ethics

• Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report: Established ethical principles for research.

Research Ethics Guidelines in the Philippines

• National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-Related Research (NEGHHR): Provides guidance.
• Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB): Oversees and accredits ethics review in the Philippines with policies according to NEGHHR.

Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10173)

• Governs the ethical use and protection of personal data in research, especially studies involving identifiable information.

Ethical Research Involving Indigenous Peoples

• Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997 (RA 8371): Provides guidelines for research involving indigenous populations, respecting their rights and traditions.
• NEGHHR Special Guidelines: Offers additional, specific guidelines.

Ethical Guidelines for Social Science Research

• Protection of participant privacy and confidentiality.
• Avoidance of exploitation or harm.
• Transparent communication with participants.

Guidelines for Clinical Trials

• Conformity to Good Clinical Practice (GCP) standards
• Regulations from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Philippines

Universal Ethical Standards

• Researchers adhere to international guidelines like the Declaration of Helsinki and CIOMS Guidelines.

Methods of Research Pt 2

• Research: Purposeful, systematic and scientific data gathering for problem solution and truth discovery.

• Key Concepts: Systematic, empirical, logical, cyclical, replicable, critical

• Kinds of Research (GPLTCSTT): Based on goal, purpose, level of investigation

• Exploratory, Descriptive, Experimental

• Analytic & Holistic Approaches

Methods of Research Pt 3

• Research Tools: Library, computer software, statistics, language
• Scales of Measurement
• Non-Interval Scales: Nominal, Ordinal
• Interval Scales: Interval, Ratio

Methods of Research Pt 4

• Hypothesis: Tentative answer to a problem
• Hypothesis: Types include statistical (null) and alternative (research).
• Results & Discussion Section of research paper: Data presentation and interpretation.
• Conclusion: Summarizes the findings.
• Recommendations: Suggests further research.
• Plagiarism: Using others' work without proper citation.