Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is the MOST accurate definition of 'a priori' knowledge?
Which of the following is the MOST accurate definition of 'a priori' knowledge?
- Knowledge gained through sensory experience and observation.
- Knowledge that is inherent and does not require external proof.
- Knowledge derived from memory and recall of past events.
- Knowledge that can be deduced through existing understanding and logical reasoning. (correct)
According to René Descartes, what criterion must something meet to be considered 'known'?
According to René Descartes, what criterion must something meet to be considered 'known'?
- It must be completely certain and indubitable. (correct)
- It must be widely accepted by the general population.
- It must be supported by empirical evidence.
- It must be useful for practical purposes.
Which of the following BEST describes a potential issue with relying on memory as a source of knowledge?
Which of the following BEST describes a potential issue with relying on memory as a source of knowledge?
- Memories can be prone to gaps and distortions, leading to inaccurate information. (correct)
- Memories are objective and free from personal interpretation.
- Memories are always perfectly accurate records of past events.
- Memories can be influenced by external sources but this doesn't affect validity.
What is the central idea behind skeptical hypotheses?
What is the central idea behind skeptical hypotheses?
Why does the question of cause pose a problem for perception as a reliable source of knowledge?
Why does the question of cause pose a problem for perception as a reliable source of knowledge?
Which of the following BEST describes circular reasoning?
Which of the following BEST describes circular reasoning?
How does the concept of circular reasoning relate to the problem of proving the existence of an external world?
How does the concept of circular reasoning relate to the problem of proving the existence of an external world?
What is the core idea of solipsism?
What is the core idea of solipsism?
What is the key difference between everyday skepticism and philosophical skepticism?
What is the key difference between everyday skepticism and philosophical skepticism?
What potential threat does skepticism pose to our understanding of the world?
What potential threat does skepticism pose to our understanding of the world?
What is the central claim of Descartes' 'Cogito' argument?
What is the central claim of Descartes' 'Cogito' argument?
In the context of epistemology, what is 'shifting the onus'?
In the context of epistemology, what is 'shifting the onus'?
What logical structure does 'Modus Ponens' follow?
What logical structure does 'Modus Ponens' follow?
What does Occam's Razor suggest one should do when faced with two points of equal reasoning?
What does Occam's Razor suggest one should do when faced with two points of equal reasoning?
In the context of skepticism, what is meant by arguing for 'a shadow of a doubt'?
In the context of skepticism, what is meant by arguing for 'a shadow of a doubt'?
What is the 'metaphysical turn' in the context of discussions about skepticism?
What is the 'metaphysical turn' in the context of discussions about skepticism?
What is the underlying assumption of 'commonsense realism', which contrasts it to the Skeptic's arguments?
What is the underlying assumption of 'commonsense realism', which contrasts it to the Skeptic's arguments?
Imagine you are trying to argue that knowledge gained through scientific processes is undeniably 'true', but someone counters that science itself relies on perception, making it just as vulnerable to error. Which concept best describes the issue with your original argument?
Imagine you are trying to argue that knowledge gained through scientific processes is undeniably 'true', but someone counters that science itself relies on perception, making it just as vulnerable to error. Which concept best describes the issue with your original argument?
Person A: 'I can't be certain that gravity will cause an apple to fall if I drop it.'
Person B: 'Are you suggesting that the common understanding of gravitational physics doesn't exist, and any explanation is as likely?'
How would you categorize these statements, in the context of Epistemology?
Person A: 'I can't be certain that gravity will cause an apple to fall if I drop it.' Person B: 'Are you suggesting that the common understanding of gravitational physics doesn't exist, and any explanation is as likely?' How would you categorize these statements, in the context of Epistemology?
Which of the following statements cannot be disproven, even if it is likely false?
Which of the following statements cannot be disproven, even if it is likely false?
What are the four kinds of information which constitute knowledge?
What are the four kinds of information which constitute knowledge?
What is circular reasoning, and why is it problematic in philosophical arguments?
What is circular reasoning, and why is it problematic in philosophical arguments?
Briefly explain Descartes' famous quote, 'Cogito, ergo sum'.
Briefly explain Descartes' famous quote, 'Cogito, ergo sum'.
Give one example of a 'Skeptical Hypothesis' mentioned in the text.
Give one example of a 'Skeptical Hypothesis' mentioned in the text.
What is the core idea behind solipsism, as outlined in the text?
What is the core idea behind solipsism, as outlined in the text?
Explain the difference between everyday scepticism and philosophical scepticism.
Explain the difference between everyday scepticism and philosophical scepticism.
What is 'shifting the onus' or 'the burden of proof' in the context of responding to skepticism?
What is 'shifting the onus' or 'the burden of proof' in the context of responding to skepticism?
State Occam’s razor (or Ockham’s razor), and explain how it might be used as a response to skepticism.
State Occam’s razor (or Ockham’s razor), and explain how it might be used as a response to skepticism.
Identify and explain one potential problem with relying on perception as a source of knowledge.
Identify and explain one potential problem with relying on perception as a source of knowledge.
Why does the text suggest that science is 'just as vulnerable as perception' when trying to prove the true nature of reality?
Why does the text suggest that science is 'just as vulnerable as perception' when trying to prove the true nature of reality?
Explain how the 'Metaphysical Turn' frames what is at stake in the debate about skepticism.
Explain how the 'Metaphysical Turn' frames what is at stake in the debate about skepticism.
What is one reason why humans might value truth over 'false pleasantries,' even if the truth is unsettling?
What is one reason why humans might value truth over 'false pleasantries,' even if the truth is unsettling?
Explain, in your own words, why the text implies that skeptical hypotheses are 'uncounterable'.
Explain, in your own words, why the text implies that skeptical hypotheses are 'uncounterable'.
In the context of the provided text, explain the significance of Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens in arguments against skepticism.
In the context of the provided text, explain the significance of Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens in arguments against skepticism.
The text mentions the possibility that 'reality started 5 minutes ago.' Explain what this thought experiment is designed to challenge.
The text mentions the possibility that 'reality started 5 minutes ago.' Explain what this thought experiment is designed to challenge.
The text states, 'Whenever we try to definitely prove the existence of an external world, we (explicitly or tacitly) rely on the fact that there is an external world.' Explain the problem this statement identifies.
The text states, 'Whenever we try to definitely prove the existence of an external world, we (explicitly or tacitly) rely on the fact that there is an external world.' Explain the problem this statement identifies.
How can we describe the level of certainty from a philosophical skeptic, and why does this level matter?
How can we describe the level of certainty from a philosophical skeptic, and why does this level matter?
The initial response to a skeptic can be described as circular reasoning. How could we re-word this response to address the skeptic without circular reasoning?
The initial response to a skeptic can be described as circular reasoning. How could we re-word this response to address the skeptic without circular reasoning?
"Perception must have cause? It cannot simply be?". What makes this question difficult to answer?
"Perception must have cause? It cannot simply be?". What makes this question difficult to answer?
If an evil demon is manipulating your thoughts, are you still able to 'know' anything? Explain your answer within the framework presented in the text.
If an evil demon is manipulating your thoughts, are you still able to 'know' anything? Explain your answer within the framework presented in the text.
Flashcards
Knowledge
Knowledge
Information that can be proven in the real world, recalled from memory, deduced through existing knowledge (a priori), or observed through perception.
Issues with Knowledge Validity
Issues with Knowledge Validity
Facts may be subject to inaccurate research or distribution, memories are prone to gaps, and perception may deceive us through illusions.
Skeptical Hypotheses
Skeptical Hypotheses
The idea that an outside force manipulates our beliefs, questioning the reality we perceive.
Circular Reasoning
Circular Reasoning
Assuming in our premises what we are setting out to prove in our conclusion.
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Solipsism
Solipsism
The philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist.
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Everyday vs. Philosophical Skepticism
Everyday vs. Philosophical Skepticism
Doubt that can be removed with evidence versus doubt that cannot be disproven.
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The Cogito
The Cogito
If our mind can think, we exist, even if manipulated or dreaming.
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Modus Ponens
Modus Ponens
If P, then Q. P. Therefore, Q.
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Modus Tollens
Modus Tollens
If P, then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P.
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Occam's Razor
Occam's Razor
The principle that the simplest explanation is usually the best.
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Facts
Facts
Information, usually of a scientific nature, that can be proved in the real world.
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Memory
Memory
Information we can recall. However, memories are prone to gaps, leading to false information.
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A priori knowledge
A priori knowledge
Information we deduct through our existing knowledge. It is known independently from experience.
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Perception
Perception
Knowledge gained through observation and our senses.
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Descartes' Certainty
Descartes' Certainty
Counting something as known when it is completely certain, without any room for doubt.
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Reasoning for Solipsism
Reasoning for Solipsism
The belief that our mind is all that exists, stemming from the idea that we only have access to our own perceptions.
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Philosophical Scepticism
Philosophical Scepticism
Questioning the possibility of genuine knowledge, given that all content/knowledge may be counterfeit.
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Commonsense Realism
Commonsense Realism
Common assumption that we perceive and observe reality as it truly exists, both in ordinary and complex scientific observations.
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Burden of Proof
Burden of Proof
The idea that the person making a claim has the responsibility to provide evidence for it.
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Skepticism's Stakes
Skepticism's Stakes
The threat to the idea that our truths might be actually be complete falsehoods.
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Types of Knowledge
- Knowledge includes facts of a scientific nature, memory, the "i priori", and perception.
- Facts: Information that can be proven in the real world through scientific means.
- Memory: Information that can be recalled.
- "I priori": Information deduced through existing knowledge (e.g., 2+2=4, not 5).
- Perception: Knowledge gained through observation.
Issues with Knowledge Validity
- Facts can be subject to inaccurate research or distribution.
- Memories are prone to forming gaps, which can lead to false information, or the Mandela effect when trying to fill these gaps.
- Perception may deceive through illusions.
- Uncertainties regarding knowledge can, in principle, be overcome.
- The possibility of genuine knowledge remains.
Skeptical Hypotheses
- Skeptical hypotheses propose that an outside force manipulates what we believe.
- Examples include being trapped in a dream, a demon casting illusions, reality starting five minutes ago, being in a simulation, or being a brain in a vat.
The Limits of Perception
- Everything known is formed by one's own thought processes, making skeptical hypotheses uncounterable, as we cannot use our minds to disprove an external world.
- Observation of causes isn't possible, so there's no mind-independent reason to assume its existence.
- Science is as vulnerable as perception because it relies on our perception of reality.
- Attempts to prove the external world rely on the assumption that there is an external world.
Circular Reasoning
- Circular reasoning, or "begging the question," assumes in the premises what one is setting out to prove in the conclusion.
- An example is arguing that God exists because the Bible says so, the Bible is infallible, and the Bible is the divine word of God.
Initial Response to the Skeptic
- Relying on the belief that perceptions and observations correspond to an external reality is begging the question.
- The question of the cause of perceptions is under dispute.
Solipsism
- Argues that the mind is all that exists based on having access only to one's own perceptions.
- Premise 1: One can only truly know what one can be certain of.
- Premise 2: One can only be certain of the content of one's own mind.
- Conclusion: Therefore, the content of one's mind is all that exists.
Scepticism
- One can only truly know the content of one's mind.
- There may or may not be a reality outside of one's mind, but all one knows for certain is the content of one's mind.
- If this content may all be counterfeit or hallucinated, where does that leave any claim to "knowledge"?
Everyday vs. Philosophical Scepticism
- Everyday scepticism: Grounds for doubt can be removed with a presupposition of background knowledge.
- Philosophical scepticism: Grounds for doubt cannot be removed with no presupposition of background knowledge.
- Ordinary doubt can still carry immense weight, and can be revealed within this world, while philosophical doubt, cannot.
- Everyday scepticism involves being deceived within your external world, while philosophical scepticism involves being deceived about your external world.
What is at Stake?
- Scepticism threatens the idea that we are living in the truth.
- Humans value truth and don't want to feel wrong, deluded, or deceived.
The Cogito
- Rene Descartes stated there is not one of his former beliefs about which a doubt may not properly be raised.
- The Cogito believes that as long as our mind can think, we can exist.
- "I think, therefore I am" ("Cogito ergo sum")
- If we are being manipulated, or simply dreaming, even then, we must exist.
Commonsense Realist Responses
- Question of "the burden of proof", shifting the onus which is the burden of proof.
- Arguments for the existence of an external world can be structured using Modus Ponens (If P, then Q; P; Therefore Q) or Modus Tollens (If P, then Q; Not Q; Therefore Not P).
- Both Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens are valid deductive arguments, meaning that if there premises are true it is guaranteed to have a true conclusion.
Occam's Razor
- Also known as the Principle of Parsimony, favors the simpler explanation when two explanations have equal reasoning.
- Would prefer the statement of there being a hand there as that is what is seen, instead of a gas tank or demon creating the image of a hand.
- The Principle of Parsimony would favour the realist
The Sceptic's Argument
- Only need to argue "a shadow of a doubt" by asserting "a possibility".
- One needs to consider how concerned we should be about mere possibilities and whether they genuinely threaten "knowledge".
The Metaphysical Turn
- We don’t want to feel wrong, deluded, deceived, that what we know is false.
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