Epistemology: Theory of Knowledge

• Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge

Core Concerns

• Defining knowledge involves exploring what it means to "know" something.
• Sources of knowledge are investigated to understand how knowledge is acquired.
• Justification of knowledge involves determining how claims to knowledge can be justified.
• The scope of knowledge is examined to define the limits of what can be known.
• Belief is a proposition or statement that someone accepts as true, representing a mental state of acceptance.
• Truth is a property of statements, thoughts, or beliefs that correspond to reality or fact.
• Justification involves the reasons or evidence supporting a belief, making it rational or well-founded.

Prominent Questions in Epistemology

• Establishing the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge is a central question.
• Determining the structure of justification, including whether some beliefs are basic while others are derived, is crucial.
• Assessing the reliability of our senses as sources of knowledge is important.
• Addressing whether we can have knowledge of the external world or if we are limited to our own minds is a key question.
• Understanding how social and cultural contexts influence what we know is essential.

Foundationalism

• Basic beliefs are claims that are self-justified or evident, forming the base of all other knowledge.
• Derived beliefs are claims justified by their relationship to basic beliefs through inference.
• Justification is structured like a pyramid, with basic beliefs at the foundation supporting derived beliefs.

Coherentism

• Belief systems involve knowledge claims justified by their coherence within a larger system of beliefs.
• Justification arises from the mutual support and internal consistency of beliefs within the system, rather than from basic beliefs.

Reliabilism

• Reliable processes are those by which knowledge is justified if produced by a reliable cognitive process.
• Examples of reliable processes are perception, memory, and sound reasoning.

Skepticism

• Skepticism is the view that questions the possibility of knowledge.
• Types of skepticism include global skepticism (doubting all knowledge) and local skepticism (doubting knowledge in a specific domain).
• Key arguments often use skeptical scenarios (e.g., evil demon, brain in a vat) to challenge the possibility of certainty.
• Responses to skepticism attempt to refute skeptical arguments or demonstrate that skepticism is not a practical problem.

Rationalism

• Reason as the primary source emphasizes reason as the main source of knowledge.
• Innate ideas are those that rationalists often believe in, suggesting principles present in the mind from birth.
• Deduction is favored, starting with general principles and applying them to specific cases.

Empiricism

• Experience as the primary source emphasizes sensory experience as the main source of knowledge.
• Tabula Rasa describes the empiricist belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, filled by experience.
• Induction is favored, starting with specific observations and generalizing to broader principles.

A Priori Knowledge

• Knowledge independent of experience is known through reason alone.
• Examples include logical, mathematical, and conceptual truths.

A Posteriori Knowledge

• Knowledge dependent on experience is only known through observation.
• Examples include empirical facts about the world.

Analytic Statements

• Statements true by definition have the predicate contained within the subject.
• Verification is achieved by analyzing the meaning of the words involved.

Synthetic Statements

• Statements not true by definition require empirical evidence to verify.
• Verification requires observation or empirical investigation.

The Gettier Problem

• The traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief (JTB) is challenged.
• Gettier cases present scenarios where someone has a justified true belief, but the belief is true due to luck rather than genuine knowledge.
• Epistemologists have been prompted to revise the JTB definition because of its impact.

Responses to the Gettier Problem

• Adding a "No False Lemmas" condition requires that the justification for a belief does not rely on any false assumptions.
• The causal theory of knowledge requires a causal connection between the belief and the fact that makes it true.
• Reliabilism requires that the belief be formed by a reliable belief-forming process.

Virtue Epistemology

• There is an emphasis on intellectual virtues or character traits in the acquisition of knowledge.
• Intellectual virtues include qualities like open-mindedness, intellectual humility, and attentiveness.
• Knowledge is viewed as a skill or ability developed through the exercise of intellectual virtues.

Social Epistemology

• The social dimensions of knowledge, including the role of testimony, trust, and social institutions, are examined.
• The reliability and credibility of testimonial sources is considered.
• Addressing issues of epistemic inequality and injustice in the distribution of knowledge and credibility is important for epistemic justice.

Feminist Epistemology

• Knowledge is always situated within specific social and historical contexts.
• The social location of knowers shapes their access to knowledge and understanding via standpoint theory.
• Traditional notions of objectivity are challenged as being neutral or unbiased.

Naturalized Epistemology

• Epistemology is integrated with the natural sciences, particularly psychology and cognitive science.
• Traditional philosophical justification is questioned by focusing on how beliefs are formed and function in the natural world.