Epistemology Study Guide

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What is epistemology?

The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge, elucidating the conditions under which we are rationally justified in claiming to know something.

What is philosophical skepticism?

Challenges our claims to know, asserting not just that we are unjustified in claiming to know this or that but that we are unjustified in claiming to know anything at all.

What is know-how knowledge?

The capacity to do something and whether or not the doer can give an account of how to do it.

What is object knowledge?

Knowledge in the sense of being acquainted with or recognizing someone or something. Signup and view all the answers

What is propositional knowledge?

Knowledge of the truth or falsity of some proposition. Signup and view all the answers

What three 'ingredients' must be present in any legitimate claim to know something?

Justification, belief, truth. Signup and view all the answers

What is non-inferential justification?

Claims which are known to be true by direct observation. Signup and view all the answers

What are Gettier cases?

Cases which allegedly show that a person can have a true belief amply supported by evidence but still not have knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What is the fallacy of equivocation?

When the force of an argument depends on a shift in the meaning of a key term even though the words remain the same. Signup and view all the answers

Who is Rene Descartes?

French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician who is considered the father of modern philosophy. Signup and view all the answers

What is foundationalism?

If we have strong, level, foundation beliefs we'll have genuine knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What are superstructural beliefs?

If we have strong, level, well-made foundational beliefs upon which rest, and to which are securely connected, other beliefs then we have genuine knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What are foundational propositions?

Propositions which we simply recognize or intuit as true. Signup and view all the answers

What are superstructural propositions?

Propositions that rest upon the foundational ones and which we know to be true because they bear some special, secure relationship to the foundational ones. Signup and view all the answers

What does the method of doubt suggest?

If it is possible coherently to doubt a proposition, then that proposition is not certain and cannot be a foundational one. Signup and view all the answers

Can a posteriori beliefs be doubted?

True Signup and view all the answers

What is Cogito, ergo sum?

'I think, therefore I am.' Signup and view all the answers

Is Cogito, ergo sum an argument?

False Signup and view all the answers

Does the certainty of the Cogito by itself provide us with a secure foundation for all knowledge?

No, God exists and is no deceiver is needed. Signup and view all the answers

How does Descartes argue in favor of God's existence?

P1 'My idea of God is an idea of a perfect being.' P2 'There must be at least as much perfection in the cause as there is in the effect.' C 'Hence, the cause of my idea is a perfect being - namely, God himself.' Signup and view all the answers

Under what circumstances are our beliefs true, according to Descartes?

Beliefs are true when they are clear and distinct. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Cartesian Circle?

God must exist because I perceive it clearly and distinctly. Signup and view all the answers

When does it mean for knowledge to be 'internally certifiable'?

When that bit of knowledge is the conclusion of an argument that has p as its conclusion and all of whose premises are either a priori and true or are knowable by introspection. Signup and view all the answers

According to the reliability theory, what are the three criteria of something's really being knowledge?

The person believes that p is true; P is, in fact, true; and In the circumstances that the person occupies, he wouldn't believe p unless p were true. Signup and view all the answers

What is a logical impossibility?

'Joe can't be a married bachelor.' Signup and view all the answers

What is a nomological impossibility?

'Joe can't go faster than the speed of light.' Signup and view all the answers

What is a circumstantial impossibility?

'Joe can't tie his shoes now.' Signup and view all the answers

What is knowledge always relative to?

A body of evidence. Signup and view all the answers

How does David Hume's version of epistemological skepticism differ from that of Descartes?

Hume is skeptical about the possibility of justified belief, particularly generalizations and predictions. Signup and view all the answers

What is Descartes' view regarding epistemological skepticism?

Descartes is skeptical about the possibility of a posteriori knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature?

All predictions and generalizations rely on an unstated premise: that the future will be like the past. Signup and view all the answers

Does Hume think that PUN is part of every inductive argument?

True Signup and view all the answers

How does Sober reformulate Hume's skeptical argument?

Nobody has yet been able to formulate it in a plausible way that is consistent with the obvious fact that there are changes in nature. Signup and view all the answers

How does Peter Strawson object to Hume's argument?

Claimed that induction needn't be proven reliable to be rational. Signup and view all the answers

How does Max Black object to Hume's argument?

Claimed that for an argument to be circular, the conclusion must explicitly appear as one of the premises. Signup and view all the answers

What are Hume & Sober both considered as?

Foundationalists. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between Sober & Hume's foundationalism?

Sober's claim is that one other thing is needed: auxiliary, or helping, premises. Signup and view all the answers

Why does Sober say that 'foundationalism leads to skepticism'?

Rational justification consists of only two things: observation sentences and conclusions that rest upon the observation sentences. Signup and view all the answers

What three things are required for rational justification?

Observation sentences; conclusions; and bridging sentences. Signup and view all the answers

Are knowledge claims legitimate only if they are justified by a deductive, inductive, or abductive argument?

False Signup and view all the answers

What is Descartes' purpose in applying his method of doubt?

To determine which beliefs can we be absolutely certain about. Signup and view all the answers

What two large categories of belief does Descartes find it possible to doubt?

A posteriori & A priori. Signup and view all the answers

What does Descartes say that it is impossible to doubt?

Cogito, ergo sum. Signup and view all the answers

What are two difficulties with the Cogito?

Why must we conclude that because there is thinking that the something that thinks is me? Signup and view all the answers

What is the relevance of Sober's thermometer example to the problem of epistemological skepticism?

Sober's thermometer example is an analogy for reliable knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

In what sense of 'impossible' is it impossible for someone to know something and for their belief about it to be false?

It is possible to use the wrong test to judge the genuineness of knowledge claims. Signup and view all the answers

What problem does Sober point out about the reliability theory of knowledge?

In the circumstances that the person occupies, he wouldn't believe p unless p were true. Signup and view all the answers

What does the relativity of knowledge to a body of evidence suggest about the epistemological problem of skepticism?

The skeptic is both right and wrong; relative to some circumstances we don't have knowledge while relative to others, we do. Signup and view all the answers

In critiquing arguments whose conclusions are generalizations or predictions, what unstated premise does Hume think such arguments must contain?

The Principle of the Uniformity of Nature. Signup and view all the answers

If PUN cannot be rationally defended, what does this mean for inductive arguments generally, according to Hume?

Inductive arguments containing PUN are no good since they are circular arguments. Signup and view all the answers

Why, in Hume's view, is PUN inductively indefensible?

The argument is no good because it would be circular. Signup and view all the answers

Why, in Hume's view, is PUN deductively indefensible?

Nature's past regularities do not logically require that those regularities continue in the future. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Epistemology Overview

Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and is focused on understanding how we justify knowledge claims.
Philosophical skepticism questions the validity of knowledge, suggesting we may lack justification for any knowledge claim.

Types of Knowledge

Know-how knowledge refers to the ability to perform tasks, regardless of the individual's ability to articulate the process.
Object knowledge involves familiarity with or recognition of specific entities.
Propositional knowledge involves understanding the truth value of specific statements or propositions.

Key Components of Knowledge

For a claim to be considered knowledge, it must include:
- Justification (proper support for the belief)
- Belief (the individual must believe in the statement)
- Truth (the statement must be true)

Justification Types

Non-inferential justification is direct observation that supports a belief.
Gettier cases illustrate situations where someone has a justified true belief that does not qualify as knowledge due to coincidental support.

Fallacies and Philosophers

The fallacy of equivocation occurs when an argument relies on changing the meaning of a term without altering its wording.
René Descartes is a significant foundational figure in modern philosophy, known for his method of doubt and foundational beliefs.

Foundational vs. Superstructural Beliefs

Foundationalism asserts that strong base beliefs provide true knowledge.
Superstructural beliefs rest securely on foundational beliefs, forming a coherent knowledge system.

Method of Doubt

Descartes' method suggests that if a belief can be coherently doubted, it cannot serve as a foundation for knowledge.

Certainty and Existence

Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) is Descartes' undeniable truth, asserting the certainty of one’s own existence.
This acknowledgment is not an argument but an intuitive realization about self-awareness.

Relationship Between God and Knowledge

Descartes posits that the existence of a benevolent God supports the reliability of human perception.
His proof of God’s existence hinges on the principle that a perfect cause must have a perfect effect.

Clarity and Distinction

Descartes holds that true beliefs are those that are clear (obvious to the mind) and distinct (well-defined).

The Cartesian Circle

The idea that clear and distinct perceptions indicate truth, which in turn relies on God's existence as the guarantee against deception presents a circular reasoning issue.

Criteria for Knowledge

A belief is considered knowledge when:
- The person believes it to be true.
- It is actually true.
- The belief is caused by circumstances that would lead one to think it's true, similar to a reliable thermometer registering temperature.

Different Types of Impossibilities

Logical impossibility: A statement that cannot possibly be true (e.g., "A married bachelor").
Nomological impossibility: A statement that contradicts known laws of nature (e.g., "Going faster than light").
Circumstantial impossibility: A statement that cannot be true due to specific circumstances (e.g., "Tying shoes right now").

Relativity of Knowledge

Knowledge claims depend on context and evidence available at a given time, implying that what counts as knowledge can vary.

Critiques of Inductive Reasoning

David Hume questions the justification for inductive reasoning, highlighting the reliance on the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature, which he argues is circular and not defensible.
Critics like Peter Strawson assert that induction is rational by definition, dismissing the need for external justification.
Max Black maintains that using induction in arguments does not create circularity, as it is separate from the argument’s premises.

Conclusion of Hume's Skepticism

Hume concludes that without a reliable defense for the uniformity of nature, inductive arguments cannot be valid.
This skepticism extends to generalizations and predictions about the future, illustrating a fundamental tension in epistemology between belief and justification.

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Test your understanding of epistemology with this study guide quiz. It covers key concepts such as the nature of knowledge and philosophical skepticism. Enhance your knowledge by exploring these essential philosophical ideas.