Questions and Answers
What is epistemology?
The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge, elucidating the conditions under which we are rationally justified in claiming to know something.
What is philosophical skepticism?
Challenges our claims to know, asserting not just that we are unjustified in claiming to know this or that but that we are unjustified in claiming to know anything at all.
What is know-how knowledge?
The capacity to do something and whether or not the doer can give an account of how to do it.
What is object knowledge?
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What is propositional knowledge?
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What three 'ingredients' must be present in any legitimate claim to know something?
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What is non-inferential justification?
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What are Gettier cases?
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What is the fallacy of equivocation?
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Who is Rene Descartes?
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What is foundationalism?
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What are superstructural beliefs?
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What are foundational propositions?
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What are superstructural propositions?
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What does the method of doubt suggest?
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Can a posteriori beliefs be doubted?
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What is Cogito, ergo sum?
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Is Cogito, ergo sum an argument?
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Does the certainty of the Cogito by itself provide us with a secure foundation for all knowledge?
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How does Descartes argue in favor of God's existence?
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Under what circumstances are our beliefs true, according to Descartes?
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What is the Cartesian Circle?
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When does it mean for knowledge to be 'internally certifiable'?
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According to the reliability theory, what are the three criteria of something's really being knowledge?
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What is a logical impossibility?
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What is a nomological impossibility?
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What is a circumstantial impossibility?
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What is knowledge always relative to?
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How does David Hume's version of epistemological skepticism differ from that of Descartes?
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What is Descartes' view regarding epistemological skepticism?
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What is the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature?
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Does Hume think that PUN is part of every inductive argument?
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How does Sober reformulate Hume's skeptical argument?
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How does Peter Strawson object to Hume's argument?
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How does Max Black object to Hume's argument?
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What are Hume & Sober both considered as?
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What is the difference between Sober & Hume's foundationalism?
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Why does Sober say that 'foundationalism leads to skepticism'?
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What three things are required for rational justification?
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Are knowledge claims legitimate only if they are justified by a deductive, inductive, or abductive argument?
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What is Descartes' purpose in applying his method of doubt?
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What two large categories of belief does Descartes find it possible to doubt?
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What does Descartes say that it is impossible to doubt?
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What are two difficulties with the Cogito?
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What is the relevance of Sober's thermometer example to the problem of epistemological skepticism?
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In what sense of 'impossible' is it impossible for someone to know something and for their belief about it to be false?
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What problem does Sober point out about the reliability theory of knowledge?
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What does the relativity of knowledge to a body of evidence suggest about the epistemological problem of skepticism?
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In critiquing arguments whose conclusions are generalizations or predictions, what unstated premise does Hume think such arguments must contain?
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If PUN cannot be rationally defended, what does this mean for inductive arguments generally, according to Hume?
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Why, in Hume's view, is PUN inductively indefensible?
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Why, in Hume's view, is PUN deductively indefensible?
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Study Notes
Epistemology Overview
- Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and is focused on understanding how we justify knowledge claims.
- Philosophical skepticism questions the validity of knowledge, suggesting we may lack justification for any knowledge claim.
Types of Knowledge
- Know-how knowledge refers to the ability to perform tasks, regardless of the individual's ability to articulate the process.
- Object knowledge involves familiarity with or recognition of specific entities.
- Propositional knowledge involves understanding the truth value of specific statements or propositions.
Key Components of Knowledge
- For a claim to be considered knowledge, it must include:
- Justification (proper support for the belief)
- Belief (the individual must believe in the statement)
- Truth (the statement must be true)
Justification Types
- Non-inferential justification is direct observation that supports a belief.
- Gettier cases illustrate situations where someone has a justified true belief that does not qualify as knowledge due to coincidental support.
Fallacies and Philosophers
- The fallacy of equivocation occurs when an argument relies on changing the meaning of a term without altering its wording.
- René Descartes is a significant foundational figure in modern philosophy, known for his method of doubt and foundational beliefs.
Foundational vs. Superstructural Beliefs
- Foundationalism asserts that strong base beliefs provide true knowledge.
- Superstructural beliefs rest securely on foundational beliefs, forming a coherent knowledge system.
Method of Doubt
- Descartes' method suggests that if a belief can be coherently doubted, it cannot serve as a foundation for knowledge.
Certainty and Existence
- Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) is Descartes' undeniable truth, asserting the certainty of one’s own existence.
- This acknowledgment is not an argument but an intuitive realization about self-awareness.
Relationship Between God and Knowledge
- Descartes posits that the existence of a benevolent God supports the reliability of human perception.
- His proof of God’s existence hinges on the principle that a perfect cause must have a perfect effect.
Clarity and Distinction
- Descartes holds that true beliefs are those that are clear (obvious to the mind) and distinct (well-defined).
The Cartesian Circle
- The idea that clear and distinct perceptions indicate truth, which in turn relies on God's existence as the guarantee against deception presents a circular reasoning issue.
Criteria for Knowledge
- A belief is considered knowledge when:
- The person believes it to be true.
- It is actually true.
- The belief is caused by circumstances that would lead one to think it's true, similar to a reliable thermometer registering temperature.
Different Types of Impossibilities
- Logical impossibility: A statement that cannot possibly be true (e.g., "A married bachelor").
- Nomological impossibility: A statement that contradicts known laws of nature (e.g., "Going faster than light").
- Circumstantial impossibility: A statement that cannot be true due to specific circumstances (e.g., "Tying shoes right now").
Relativity of Knowledge
- Knowledge claims depend on context and evidence available at a given time, implying that what counts as knowledge can vary.
Critiques of Inductive Reasoning
- David Hume questions the justification for inductive reasoning, highlighting the reliance on the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature, which he argues is circular and not defensible.
- Critics like Peter Strawson assert that induction is rational by definition, dismissing the need for external justification.
- Max Black maintains that using induction in arguments does not create circularity, as it is separate from the argument’s premises.
Conclusion of Hume's Skepticism
- Hume concludes that without a reliable defense for the uniformity of nature, inductive arguments cannot be valid.
- This skepticism extends to generalizations and predictions about the future, illustrating a fundamental tension in epistemology between belief and justification.
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Description
Test your understanding of epistemology with this study guide quiz. It covers key concepts such as the nature of knowledge and philosophical skepticism. Enhance your knowledge by exploring these essential philosophical ideas.