English Grammar: Sentence Structure

• English grammar is the structural foundation of the English language, governing how words combine to form meaningful sentences.
• Mastery of English grammar is essential for clear and effective communication in both written and spoken English.

Sentence Structure

• A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.
• The basic English sentence structure follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order.
• The subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action of the verb.
• The verb expresses the action or state of being of the subject.
• The object receives the action of the verb.
• For example, "The cat (subject) chased (verb) the mouse (object)."
• Sentences can be simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
• A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
• A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) or a semicolon.
• A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
• A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
• Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb.
• An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
• A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be connected to an independent clause.
• Phrases are groups of words that do not contain a subject and a verb.
• Phrases add detail and modify elements in a sentence.
• Examples include noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and participial phrases.

Verb Tenses

• Verb tenses indicate when an action takes place (past, present, or future).
• English has twelve main verb tenses, formed from combinations of the primary tenses (past, present, future) and aspects (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous).

Simple Tenses

• Simple Present describes habitual actions, general truths, or current states.
• For example, "I eat breakfast every morning."
• Simple Past describes completed actions in the past.
• For example, "I ate breakfast this morning."
• Simple Future describes actions that will happen in the future.
• For example, "I will eat breakfast tomorrow morning."

Continuous Tenses

• Present Continuous describes actions happening now or around now.
• For example, "I am eating breakfast right now."
• Past Continuous describes actions in progress at a specific time in the past.
• For example, "I was eating breakfast when you called."
• Future Continuous describes actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future.
• For example, "I will be eating breakfast at 8 a.m. tomorrow."

Perfect Tenses

• Present Perfect describes actions that started in the past and continue to have relevance in the present.
• For example, "I have eaten breakfast already."
• Past Perfect describes actions completed before a specific time in the past.
• For example, "I had eaten breakfast before I left for work."
• Future Perfect describes actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future.
• For example, "I will have eaten breakfast by the time you arrive."

Perfect Continuous Tenses

• Present Perfect Continuous describes actions that started in the past and continue to the present, emphasizing duration.
• For example, "I have been eating breakfast for an hour."
• Past Perfect Continuous describes actions that had been in progress before a specific time in the past.
• For example, "I had been eating breakfast for an hour when you called."
• Future Perfect Continuous describes actions that will have been in progress before a specific time in the future.
• For example, "I will have been eating breakfast for an hour by the time you arrive."

Punctuation Rules

• Punctuation marks are symbols used to clarify meaning and structure in writing.
• Common punctuation marks include periods, commas, question marks, exclamation points, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, quotation marks, parentheses, brackets, and dashes.

Periods (.)

• Used to end declarative sentences.
• For example, "The cat sat on the mat."
• Used in abbreviations.
• For example, "Mr."

Commas (,)

• Used to separate items in a list.
• For example, "I bought apples, bananas, and oranges."
• Used to separate independent clauses when joined by a coordinating conjunction.
• For example, "I went to the store, and I bought some milk."
• Used after introductory phrases or clauses.
• For example, "After I finished my homework, I watched TV."
• Used to set off nonessential information.
• For example, "My brother, who is a doctor, lives in New York."

Question Marks (?)

• Used to end interrogative sentences.
• For example, "What time is it?"

Exclamation Points (!)

• Used to indicate strong emotion or emphasis.
• For example, "That's amazing!"

Semicolons (;)

• Used to join two closely related independent clauses.
• For example, "I went to the store; I bought some milk."
• Used to separate items in a list when the items contain commas.
• For example, "I visited London, England; Paris, France; and Rome, Italy."

Colons (:)

• Used to introduce a list, explanation, or example.
• For example, "I need the following items: milk, bread, and eggs."

Apostrophes (')

• Used to indicate possession.
• For example, "The cat's toy."
• Used to indicate contractions.
• For example, "I can't go."

Quotation Marks (" ")

• Used to enclose direct quotations.
• For example, "She said, 'Hello.'"
• Used to indicate titles of short works, such as articles or songs.
• For example, "I read the article 'The Benefits of Exercise.'"

Parentheses ()

• Used to enclose additional information or explanations.
• For example, "My brother (who is a doctor) lives in New York."

Brackets ([ ])

• Used to add clarifying information or corrections within a quotation.
• For example, "He said, 'I [really] enjoyed the movie.'"

Dashes (--)

• Used to indicate a sudden break in thought or to set off nonessential information.
• For example, "I was going to go to the store—but I changed my mind."

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Subject-verb agreement means that the verb must agree in number (singular or plural) with its subject.
• Singular subjects take singular verbs.
• For example, "The cat (singular subject) sits (singular verb) on the mat."
• Plural subjects take plural verbs.
• For example, "The cats (plural subject) sit (plural verb) on the mat."
• Collective nouns (e.g., team, family, committee) can be singular or plural, depending on whether they are acting as a single unit or as individual members.
• For example, "The team (acting as a unit) is playing well."
• For example, "The team (acting as individuals) are arguing among themselves."
• Indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, someone, nobody) can be singular or plural, depending on the pronoun.
• Singular indefinite pronouns: each, everyone, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, everything, something, nothing, anything, either, neither
• Plural indefinite pronouns: several, few, both, many
• Indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural: some, all, any, none, most

Parts of Speech

• Parts of speech are categories of words based on their function in a sentence.
• The eight main parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Nouns

• Nouns are words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
• Common nouns: general names (e.g., cat, city, book)
• Proper nouns: specific names (e.g., Whiskers, London, "The Lord of the Rings")
• Concrete nouns: tangible things (e.g., table, phone, tree)
• Abstract nouns: intangible ideas or concepts (e.g., love, freedom, justice)

Pronouns

• Pronouns are words that replace nouns.
• Personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them
• Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
• Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
• Relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that, whose
• Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
• Indefinite pronouns: each, everyone, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, everything, something, nothing, anything, either, neither, several, few, both, many, some, all, any, none, most
• Interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which, whose

Verbs

• Verbs are words that express actions or states of being.
• Action verbs: describe actions (e.g., run, jump, eat)
• Linking verbs: connect the subject to a noun or adjective that describes or identifies the subject (e.g., be, seem, become)
• Auxiliary verbs: help the main verb express tense, mood, or voice (e.g., be, have, do)

Adjectives

• Adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns.
• They provide information about qualities, characteristics, or attributes.
• For example: "The blue car" ("blue" describes the car)

Adverbs

• Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
• They provide information about how, when, where, or to what extent.
• For example: "He ran quickly" ("quickly" modifies the verb "ran")

Prepositions

• Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence.
• Common prepositions: in, on, at, to, from, with, by, for, about, under, over, above, below, beside, between, among
• For example: "The book is on the table" ("on" shows the relationship between "book" and "table")

Conjunctions

• Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses.
• Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
• Used to connect equal elements.
• Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, since, when, while, after, before, until, unless
• Used to connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.
• Correlative conjunctions: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also
• Used in pairs to connect equal elements.

Interjections

• Interjections are words that express strong emotion or surprise.
• They are often used alone or at the beginning of a sentence.
• For example: "Wow! That's amazing."
• For example: "Ouch! That hurts."