Endocrine System: Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
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Questions and Answers

In terms of anatomical connectivity, what can be said about the relationship between the hypothalamus and both lobes of the pituitary gland?

  • There are no connections between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
  • The anterior lobe has vascular connections while the posterior lobe has neural connections (correct)
  • Both lobes connect via hormones only
  • Both lobes connect through lymphatic and neural connections only

Which nuclei provide the main axonal input to the posterior pituitary?

  • Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei (correct)
  • Dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei
  • Arcuate and lateral hypothalamic nuclei
  • Magnocellular and parvocellular nuclei

What is the role of the hypothalamohypophysial tract in pituitary function?

  • Connecting the anterior pituitary to peripheral organs
  • Facilitating embryological development of the pituitary
  • Conducting signals from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary (correct)
  • Transporting hormones from the posterior to the anterior pituitary

What type of nerve fibers primarily innervate the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

<p>Sympathetic fibers from the anterior capsule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure provides a direct vascular connection between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary?

<p>Portal hypophysial vessels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary trigger for the increase in thirst during hemorrhage, independent of plasma osmolality changes?

<p>Decrease in ECF volume (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which substance increases as a result of renin secretion due to hypovolemia?

<p>Angiotensin II (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the physiological response to the activation of thirst centers in the brain due to ECF volume depletion?

<p>Increased water intake (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do baroreceptors play in the thirst response to hypovolemia?

<p>They also contribute to the thirst response alongside angiotensin II. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might the inhibition of angiotensin II not fully block the thirst response?

<p>Other mechanisms, such as baroreceptor input, also influence thirst. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which mammals is arginine vasopressin replaced by lysine vasopressin?

<p>Hippos and most pigs (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the vasopressin present in some species of pigs and marsupials?

<p>It consists of a mixture of arginine and lysine vasopressin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the synthesis of vasopressin and oxytocin?

<p>They are synthesized in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and transported to the posterior pituitary. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic shared by vasopressin and oxytocin as neural hormones?

<p>Both are secreted in response to electrical activity in the endings of neurons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which V1A and V1B vasopressin receptors increase intracellular calcium concentrations?

<p>Phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the nature of vasopressin receptors?

<p>V1A, V1B, and V2 are G-protein-coupled receptors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions is mediated by V1A and V1B receptors through their signaling pathways?

<p>Mobilization of intracellular calcium stores (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of vasopressin in the kidneys?

<p>Enhancing water retention (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of vasopressin absence on urine characteristics?

<p>Urine volume increases and is hypotonic to plasma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to body fluid osmolality when vasopressin is not present?

<p>It increases as water is lost (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of oxytocin in relation to reproductive organs?

<p>Facilitating luteolysis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptor is primarily involved in the action of oxytocin?

<p>G-protein–coupled receptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are the oxytocin receptors found in addition to the uterus?

<p>In mammary tissue and the ovaries (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are hypophysiotropic hormones primarily responsible for?

<p>Stimulating the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do hypophysiotropic hormones primarily reach the anterior pituitary?

<p>Via the portal hypophysial vessels from the hypothalamus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the CRH-binding protein affect CRH activity in the body?

<p>It inactivates CRH in peripheral circulation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is the CRH-binding protein found, aside from the peripheral circulation?

<p>In the cytoplasm of corticotropes in the anterior pituitary. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for stimulating the breast?

<p>Prolactin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone among the following is NOT a tropic hormone?

<p>Growth hormone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure lies immediately below the hypothalamus and plays a key role in pituitary hormone regulation?

<p>Median eminence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does proopiomelanocortin (POMC) function within the intermediate lobe?

<p>It serves various functions, including skin pigmentation regulation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which role does the anterior pituitary play compared to the posterior lobe?

<p>It synthesizes and secretes a variety of tropic hormones. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cell in the anterior pituitary is responsible for secreting growth hormone?

<p>Somatotropes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormones are secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary?

<p>FSH and LH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormones in the anterior pituitary are glycoprotein hormones that share α and β subunits?

<p>TSH, FSH, and LH (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following secretory cells in the anterior pituitary is specifically involved in the secretion of ACTH?

<p>Corticotropes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lactotropes, primarily secrete which hormone?

<p>Prolactin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the physiological roles of hGH-V and hCS?

<p>They are mainly found in the circulation during pregnancy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the secretion pattern of growth hormone from the pituitary gland?

<p>It includes variably modified peptides and splice variants. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the range of the half-life of circulating growth hormone in humans?

<p>6–20 minutes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What essential process occurs when growth hormone binds to its receptor?

<p>Dimerization of the receptor is initiated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To which superfamily does the growth hormone receptor belong?

<p>Cytokine receptor superfamily (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway is primarily activated by growth hormone to mediate its effects at the intracellular level?

<p>JAK2-STAT pathway (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of STATs in the JAK2-STAT signaling pathway upon activation?

<p>They migrate to the nucleus to activate genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In addition to growth hormone, which other substances are known to mediate their effects through the JAK-STAT pathway?

<p>Prolactin and other growth factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary type of enzyme that JAK2 belongs to, which plays a critical role in the signaling cascades activated by growth hormone?

<p>Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of prolonged treatment with growth hormone in young animals before epiphyseal closure?

<p>Gigantism occurs due to excessive linear growth (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between epiphyseal closure and growth hormone effects?

<p>Once the epiphyses are closed, growth hormone only increases soft tissue mass. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the physiological changes in the body resulting from an overabundance of growth hormone in adults?

<p>Acromegaly characterized by bone and soft tissue deformities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does hypophysectomy affect growth in young animals with unfused epiphyses?

<p>It inhibits growth and leads to reduced chondrogenesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what stage of life does the concentration of IGF-I in plasma typically peak?

<p>At puberty (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that stimulates the secretion of IGF-I after birth?

<p>Growth hormone (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the secretion of IGF-II relate to growth hormone?

<p>IGF-II secretion is largely independent of growth hormone. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Hypothalamus connection

The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland in two ways: neural and vascular.

Posterior Pituitary

The posterior lobe of the pituitary receives neural signals from the hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary

The anterior lobe of the pituitary has blood vessels connecting it to the hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus Role

The hypothalamus helps control hormone release from the pituitary gland.

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Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a crucial gland that regulates many bodily functions by releasing hormones.

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Posterior Pituitary Origin

The posterior pituitary forms from an out-pocketing of the third ventricle.

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Posterior Pituitary Structure

Mainly composed of axons from hypothalamic nuclei (supraoptic and paraventricular).

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Hypothalamohypophysial Tract

The pathway connecting hypothalamic nuclei to the posterior pituitary.

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Anterior Pituitary Origin

Develops from an embryonic pouch called Rathke's pouch, from the pharynx.

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Rathke's Pouch

Embryonic pouch that forms the anterior and intermediate pituitary lobes

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Anterior Pituitary Connection

Connected to the hypothalamus via blood vessels (portal hypophysial vessels).

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Hypothalamus-Anterior Pituitary Connection Type

The connection is primarily vascular, not neural.

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Posterior Pituitary Nerve Input

Receives nerve input from the hypothalamus, through nerves.

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Anterior Pituitary Nerve Input

Receives few/no direct nerve fibers from the hypothalamus.

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Portal Hypophysial Vessels

Blood vessels connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

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ECF volume depletion and thirst

Decreased extracellular fluid (ECF) volume triggers thirst independently of changes in blood salt concentration.

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Renin-angiotensin system and thirst

Low blood volume stimulates the release of renin, which leads to more angiotensin II, promoting thirst sensation.

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Angiotensin II and thirst centers

Angiotensin II acts on specific brain regions, like the subfornical organ, to initiate the feeling of thirst.

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Subfornical organ's role

The subfornical organ is a brain structure that receives angiotensin II and triggers thirst-related signals.

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Hypovolemia and thirst

Low blood volume directly stimulates thirst via the renin-angiotensin system, leading to increased drinking.

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Circumventricular organs

Brain regions outside the blood-brain barrier, highly permeable to substances.

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Hypovolemia and thirst

Low blood volume directly triggers thirst, independent of blood salt changes.

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Angiotensin II's role in thirst

A hormone that constricts blood vessels and promotes thirst, from the renin-angiotensin system.

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Prandial drinking

Increased liquid intake during meals; possibly learned or habitual.

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Thirst triggers

Multiple mechanisms trigger thirst, including changes in blood volume and salt concentration, as well as gastrointestinal hormones.

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin are the main hormones produced in most mammals.

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Lysine Vasopressin in Animals

In some species, like hippos and pigs, vasopressin has lysine instead of arginine.

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Mixed Vasopressin in Some Species

Some animals (like certain pigs and marsupials) have both arginine and lysine vasopressin in their pituitary.

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Posterior Pituitary Nanopeptides

Some nanopeptides have a disulfide ring located at one end of the molecule in the posterior lobe.

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Vasopressin Variations

The exact composition of vasopressin hormones can vary between species, based on the amino acids present.

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Oxytocin and vasopressin, synthesized in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary.

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Vasopressin Locations

Vasopressin is produced in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, suprachiasmatic nuclei, brain stem, and spinal cord neurons.

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Oxytocin Production

Oxytocin is made in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland, as well as other locations like gonads.

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Neural Hormone Release

Hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin are released directly by nerve cells into the bloodstream.

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Posterior Pituitary Location

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is where hormones released by neurons are secreted.

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Vasopressin V1A receptor

A G-protein coupled receptor that increases intracellular calcium levels by triggering phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis.

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Vasopressin V1B receptor

A G-protein coupled receptor increasing intracellular calcium levels, similar to V1A, through phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis.

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Vasopressin V2 receptor

A G-protein coupled receptor that increases cyclic AMP levels.

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G-protein coupled receptor

A cell surface receptor that links to intracellular signaling molecules through a G-protein when activated by an extracellular signal.

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Phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis

The breakdown of phosphatidylinositol, a cell membrane component, to produce intracellular signalling molecules, such as inositol triphosphate (IP3).

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Vasopressin's Effect on Urine

Vasopressin causes the kidneys to retain more water, making urine more concentrated and reducing its volume.

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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Another name for vasopressin, highlighting its role in preventing excessive urine production.

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Vasopressin's Role in Osmolality

Vasopressin regulates the concentration of solutes in body fluids, thus affecting the effective osmotic pressure.

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Hypotonic Urine

Urine with a lower concentration of solutes compared to blood plasma.

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Collecting Ducts and Water Permeability

Vasopressin increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to allow water to move into the surrounding tissues.

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Oxytocin's primary target in humans

Breasts and uterus, though potentially involved in luteolysis

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Oxytocin receptor location

Found in human myometrium, mammary tissue, and ovary; G-protein coupled

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Oxytocin's intracellular effect

Increases intracellular calcium levels

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G-protein coupled receptor function

Links to intracellular signaling molecules when activated by an external signal.

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Intracellular calcium increase

Trigger via oxytocin receptor activation; critical for certain physiological responses.

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Hypophysiotropic Hormones

Chemical agents, formerly known as releasing and inhibiting factors, secreted by the hypothalamus to control anterior pituitary hormone secretion.

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Portal Hypophysial Vessels

Blood vessels connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary, carrying hypophysiotropic hormones.

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Anterior Pituitary Hormone Control

The anterior pituitary's hormone release is regulated by hypophysiotropic hormones delivered through portal vessels.

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Hypophysiotropic Hormone Action

They act on the anterior pituitary, triggering release of other hormones into the general circulation.

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Hypophysiotropic Hormone Concentration

Hypophysiotropic hormones are most concentrated in portal hypophysial blood, with smaller amounts in the general circulation.

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CRH Receptors

Receptors for corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), involved in regulating stress response.

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hCRH-RII

A type of CRH receptor, the physiologic role is not fully understood.

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CRH-binding protein

A protein found in the peripheral circulation that inactivates CRH.

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Receptor Internalization

Process where receptors are taken inside the cell.

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Hypophysiotropic Hormone Binding Proteins

Proteins that bind and potentially regulate the activity of hypophysiotropic hormones (secreted by the hypothalamus to control anterior pituitary hormone release).

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Pituitary Gland Location

Located in a pocket of the sphenoid bone at the base of the brain.

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Anterior Pituitary Function

Secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands (tropichormones) and some tissues, and the majority of the hormones are produced by the hypothalamus.

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Anterior Pituitary Blood Supply

Supplied by portal hypophysial vessels, which first travel through the median eminence.

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Prolactin Target Organ

Breast

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Tropichormones

Hormones, such as TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH, that stimulate other endocrine glands to produce their own hormones.

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Posterior Pituitary

Part of the pituitary gland containing nerve fibers from the hypothalamus, storing and releasing oxytocin and vasopressin.

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Intermediate Pituitary

A pituitary lobe (smaller in humans), producing proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived hormones like those affecting skin pigmentation.

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Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Hormones produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary; involved in various physiological functions.

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Proopiomelanocortin (POMC)

A precursor molecule processed into various hormones, including those involved in skin pigmentation, among other functions.

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Anterior Pituitary

Pituitary lobe connected to hypothalamus by blood vessels, releasing hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands.

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Anterior Pituitary Cell Types

Secretory cells in the anterior pituitary, such as somatotropes, lactotropes, corticotropes, thyrotropes, and gonadotropes

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Somatotropes

Anterior pituitary cells that secrete growth hormone

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Lactotropes/Mammotropes

Anterior pituitary cells secreting prolactin

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Corticotropes

Anterior pituitary cells that secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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Pituitary Glycoprotein Hormones

FSH, LH, and TSH, having alpha and beta subunits

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Growth Hormone Types

Human growth hormone (hGH) exists in multiple forms, including a 'normal' form (hGH-N) and a variant form (hGH-V), as well as various post-translationally modified forms and splice variants.

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Growth Hormone Sources

Pituitary gland secretes a mixture of growth hormones, while some variants, like hGH-V and hCS, primarily come from the placenta during pregnancy.

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hGH-N Form

The most abundant form of human growth hormone (hGH), produced by the pituitary gland.

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hGH-V Source

Variant growth hormone primarily produced by the placenta during pregnancy.

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hCS and hGH Relation

Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) and variant forms of growth hormone are related in that they are both produced, along with other hGH types, in the placenta during pregnancy.

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Growth Hormone Binding

A portion of circulating growth hormone is attached to a plasma protein, a receptor fragment.

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Growth Hormone Half-life

Circulating growth hormone in humans lasts for 6-20 minutes.

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Basal Growth Hormone Level

The typical level of growth hormone in the blood in adults. It's less than 3 ng/mL.

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Growth Hormone Metabolism

Growth hormone is broken down, mostly in the liver.

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Growth Hormone Output

The average daily production of growth hormone by adults is between 0.2 and 1.0 mg.

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Growth Hormone Receptor Structure

A 620-amino-acid protein with extracellular, transmembrane, and cytoplasmic domains; part of the cytokine receptor superfamily.

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Growth Hormone Receptor Dimerization

Binding of growth hormone to one receptor site triggers the binding of another, creating a receptor pair (homodimer) essential for activation.

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Growth Hormone Receptor Activation

The binding of growth hormone to the receptor drives the formation of a dimer form, initiating signal transduction.

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Growth Hormone Receptor Domains

Growth hormone has areas (domains) that allow it to attach to and activate its receptor, prompting signals to start within the cell.

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Growth Hormone Binding

Growth hormone binds to specific areas (domains) on its receptor, which need to be present for it to function.

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Growth Hormone Signaling Cascade

Growth hormone activates many intracellular signaling pathways, similar to insulin.

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JAK2-STAT Pathway Activation

A key intracellular pathway activated by growth hormone.

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JAK2 Kinase

Part of the Janus family of tyrosine kinases that activates STAT proteins.

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STAT Transcription Factors

Cytoplasmic proteins that move to the nucleus to trigger gene expression after phosphorylation.

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JAK-STAT Pathway Mediators

Signal pathways mediating effects of prolactin and other growth factors.

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Growth Inhibition in Young Animals

Removing the pituitary gland (hypophysectomy) stops growth in young animals whose epiphyses haven't fused to their long bones.

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Growth Hormone Stimulation

Growth hormone boosts cartilage growth in epiphyseal plates, leading to increased bone length.

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Gigantism

Constant growth hormone use in young animals before epiphyseal closure leads to abnormally large stature.

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Acromegaly

Excess growth hormone in adults (after epiphyseal closure) causes abnormal bone and tissue growth.

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Viscera Enlargement

Growth hormone often results in increased size of internal organs (viscera).

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Somatomedins

Polypeptide growth factors secreted by the liver and other tissues, affecting growth, cartilage, and protein metabolism by interacting with growth hormone.

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Sulfation Factor

An early somatomedin, initially identified for stimulating sulfate incorporation into cartilage; later renamed somatomedin.

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Somatomedin variety

There are many types of somatomedins that are part of a larger family of growth factors affecting various tissues.

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Growth Hormone interaction

Growth hormone's effects on growth depend on its interaction with somatomedins.

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Growth factors

Substances that stimulate growth and development in various tissues and organs.

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IGF-I secretion pre/post-birth

IGF-I secretion is independent of growth hormone before birth, but stimulated by it after birth.

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IGF-II and fetal growth

IGF-II is largely independent of growth hormone and plays a key role in fetal growth before birth.

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IGF-II overexpression effects

IGF-II overexpression in fetuses leads to disproportionate growth of specific organs, especially the tongue, muscles, and liver.

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IGF-II adult expression

IGF-II genes are only expressed in the choroid plexus and meninges of adults.

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IGF-I plasma levels throughout life

Plasma IGF-I levels rise during childhood, peak during puberty, and then decrease in old age.

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Study Notes

  • The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are connected in two distinct ways: neural connections and vascular connections.

Neural Connections

  • Neural connections exist between the hypothalamus and the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
  • These connections involve nerve fibers that transmit signals directly from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary.
  • Neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize hormones that are transported along these nerve fibers to the posterior pituitary.
  • The posterior pituitary then releases these hormones into the bloodstream.

Vascular Connections

  • Vascular connections exist between the hypothalamus and the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
  • These connections involve a specialized portal system of blood vessels.
  • The hypothalamus releases hormones (releasing hormones) into these vessels.
  • These releasing hormones travel directly to the anterior pituitary where they regulate the release of other hormones.
  • Blood vessels carry hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.
  • The anterior pituitary, in turn, secretes various hormones into the general circulation.

Key Differences

  • Neural pathway: direct connection, hormones produced and stored in the hypothalamus, then released at the posterior pituitary into systemic circulation.
  • Vascular pathway: indirect connection using a portal system, hormones (releasing hormones) are produced in the hypothalamus, carried to the anterior pituitary, where they stimulate release of other hormones from the anterior pituitary, then released into systemic circulation

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Description

Explore the connections between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in this quiz. Understand the neural and vascular pathways that facilitate hormone release and regulation. Test your knowledge on the functions of both the posterior and anterior lobes of the pituitary gland.

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