Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following hormones is released in an episodic pattern?
Which of the following hormones is released in an episodic pattern?
- Prolactin
- Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Growth Hormone (correct)
- Cortisol
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
- Integrating information and controlling pituitary gland activity (correct)
- Directly producing and releasing all major hormones
- Regulating body temperature and sleep cycles
- Acting as a relay station for all sensory information
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the adrenal gland to produce cortisol?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the adrenal gland to produce cortisol?
- GHRH
- GnRH
- CRH (correct)
- TRH
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of negative feedback regulation in hormone secretion?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of negative feedback regulation in hormone secretion?
What is the primary mechanism by which estrogen regulates its own production?
What is the primary mechanism by which estrogen regulates its own production?
Which of the following is a characteristic of a primary endocrine disorder?
Which of the following is a characteristic of a primary endocrine disorder?
What is the main structural similarity between TSH, LH, and FSH?
What is the main structural similarity between TSH, LH, and FSH?
Which of the following is an example of product regulation in hormone secretion?
Which of the following is an example of product regulation in hormone secretion?
What is the most likely consequence of long-term hydrocortisone therapy?
What is the most likely consequence of long-term hydrocortisone therapy?
Which of the following is a key difference between male and female hormone secretion?
Which of the following is a key difference between male and female hormone secretion?
Which of the following hormones is NOT primarily responsible for secondary sex characteristics in both males and females?
Which of the following hormones is NOT primarily responsible for secondary sex characteristics in both males and females?
What is the main function of somatostatin in the endocrine system?
What is the main function of somatostatin in the endocrine system?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the HPG axis?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the HPG axis?
Which of the following hormones is DIRECTLY responsible for stimulating follicle maturation in females?
Which of the following hormones is DIRECTLY responsible for stimulating follicle maturation in females?
Which of the following best describes the mechanism by which the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland?
Which of the following best describes the mechanism by which the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland?
Which of the following is NOT a type of hormone regulation described in the provided content?
Which of the following is NOT a type of hormone regulation described in the provided content?
Which hormone acts on the testes to produce testosterone?
Which hormone acts on the testes to produce testosterone?
Which of the following hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary?
Which of the following hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary?
Which cell type in the testes is responsible for producing androgens?
Which cell type in the testes is responsible for producing androgens?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in hormone secretion?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in hormone secretion?
What is the primary androgen produced by the testes?
What is the primary androgen produced by the testes?
What is the role of Sertoli cells in sperm development?
What is the role of Sertoli cells in sperm development?
Which of the following is a characteristic of hydrophilic hormones?
Which of the following is a characteristic of hydrophilic hormones?
What is the key enzyme involved in the conversion of androgens to estrogens in granulosa cells?
What is the key enzyme involved in the conversion of androgens to estrogens in granulosa cells?
What is the most abundant protein in blood, which binds to various steroids and thyroid hormones?
What is the most abundant protein in blood, which binds to various steroids and thyroid hormones?
Which of the following hormonal mechanisms utilizes secondary signaling molecules?
Which of the following hormonal mechanisms utilizes secondary signaling molecules?
What is the role of testosterone during fetal development in males?
What is the role of testosterone during fetal development in males?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the cyclical pattern of hormone secretion in females?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the cyclical pattern of hormone secretion in females?
What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla?
What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla?
Which of the following is an example of a circadian secretion pattern?
Which of the following is an example of a circadian secretion pattern?
What is the role of DHT during puberty in males?
What is the role of DHT during puberty in males?
What is the effect of the negative feedback mechanism of testosterone on hormone secretion?
What is the effect of the negative feedback mechanism of testosterone on hormone secretion?
What is the significance of the blood-brain barrier in hormonal regulation?
What is the significance of the blood-brain barrier in hormonal regulation?
What is the key difference between the hormonal control of reproduction in males and females?
What is the key difference between the hormonal control of reproduction in males and females?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that can stimulate hormone secretion?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that can stimulate hormone secretion?
What are the main cell types found in the seminiferous tubules?
What are the main cell types found in the seminiferous tubules?
What is the function of the adrenal glomerulosa layer?
What is the function of the adrenal glomerulosa layer?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the action of steroid hormones within the cell?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the action of steroid hormones within the cell?
How do steroid hormones primarily exert their effects?
How do steroid hormones primarily exert their effects?
What is the role of aromatase in steroid hormone action?
What is the role of aromatase in steroid hormone action?
Which of the following hormones is primarily secreted in an episodic pattern?
Which of the following hormones is primarily secreted in an episodic pattern?
What is the primary function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
What is the primary function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
What is the effect of five alpha reductase deficiency?
What is the effect of five alpha reductase deficiency?
Which of the following is NOT a function of testosterone in adults?
Which of the following is NOT a function of testosterone in adults?
Which of the following is an example of paracrine hormone secretion?
Which of the following is an example of paracrine hormone secretion?
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the hormonal control of reproduction?
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the hormonal control of reproduction?
Which of the following is an example of a hormone that can cross the blood-brain barrier?
Which of the following is an example of a hormone that can cross the blood-brain barrier?
What is the primary function of the adrenal reticularis layer?
What is the primary function of the adrenal reticularis layer?
Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for stimulating the conversion of androgens to estrogens in the granulosa cells of the follicle?
Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for stimulating the conversion of androgens to estrogens in the granulosa cells of the follicle?
During which phase of the menstrual cycle does the corpus luteum form?
During which phase of the menstrual cycle does the corpus luteum form?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of estrogen in the follicular phase?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of estrogen in the follicular phase?
What is the main function of the thecal cells in the ovary?
What is the main function of the thecal cells in the ovary?
Which hormone exhibits a surge or peak during ovulation?
Which hormone exhibits a surge or peak during ovulation?
What hormone is responsible for stimulating the development of the granulosa cells in the ovary?
What hormone is responsible for stimulating the development of the granulosa cells in the ovary?
Which of the following statements about the luteal phase is TRUE?
Which of the following statements about the luteal phase is TRUE?
What is the primary function of the primordial follicle?
What is the primary function of the primordial follicle?
What is the main reason for the variability in the length of the menstrual cycle?
What is the main reason for the variability in the length of the menstrual cycle?
Which of the following hormones is NOT produced by the ovary?
Which of the following hormones is NOT produced by the ovary?
How does estrogen influence the development of the dominant follicle?
How does estrogen influence the development of the dominant follicle?
What is the primary function of inhibin in the ovary?
What is the primary function of inhibin in the ovary?
Which of the following events is NOT directly associated with the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
Which of the following events is NOT directly associated with the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
Which of the following statements accurately reflects the relationship between the pituitary gland and ovarian function?
Which of the following statements accurately reflects the relationship between the pituitary gland and ovarian function?
During the follicular phase, which hormone has the strongest positive feedback effect on the follicle?
During the follicular phase, which hormone has the strongest positive feedback effect on the follicle?
What is the main difference between LH and FSH?
What is the main difference between LH and FSH?
A patient presents with fatigue, cold intolerance, and weight gain. Their TSH levels are high, and free T4 levels are low. What is the most likely diagnosis?
A patient presents with fatigue, cold intolerance, and weight gain. Their TSH levels are high, and free T4 levels are low. What is the most likely diagnosis?
Which of the following conditions can affect thyroid function tests (TFTs) and potentially lead to misinterpretation?
Which of the following conditions can affect thyroid function tests (TFTs) and potentially lead to misinterpretation?
What is the primary cause of hypothyroidism worldwide?
What is the primary cause of hypothyroidism worldwide?
A patient has normal T4 and T3 levels, but a low TSH level. What is the most likely diagnosis?
A patient has normal T4 and T3 levels, but a low TSH level. What is the most likely diagnosis?
What is the biological function of T3 compared to T4?
What is the biological function of T3 compared to T4?
Which of the following is NOT considered a symptom of hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is NOT considered a symptom of hypothyroidism?
What is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism?
What is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary hypothyroidism?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is NOT a common treatment goal for hyperthyroidism?
Which of the following is NOT a common treatment goal for hyperthyroidism?
Which statement accurately describes the role of thyroid hormone in the cardiovascular system?
Which statement accurately describes the role of thyroid hormone in the cardiovascular system?
Which of the following is NOT a common symptom of hyperthyroidism?
Which of the following is NOT a common symptom of hyperthyroidism?
What is the half-life of free T4?
What is the half-life of free T4?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in the regulation of thyroid hormone production?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in the regulation of thyroid hormone production?
Which of the following is NOT a secondary cause of hypothyroidism?
Which of the following is NOT a secondary cause of hypothyroidism?
What is the most common treatment for hyperthyroidism that involves the use of radioactive iodine?
What is the most common treatment for hyperthyroidism that involves the use of radioactive iodine?
Which of the following hormones is NOT derived from an amino acid?
Which of the following hormones is NOT derived from an amino acid?
What is the main function of the endocrine system?
What is the main function of the endocrine system?
Which type of hormone signaling involves the release of a hormone that acts on the same cell that secreted it?
Which type of hormone signaling involves the release of a hormone that acts on the same cell that secreted it?
Which hormone is produced by the adrenal gland and is involved in the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Which hormone is produced by the adrenal gland and is involved in the 'fight-or-flight' response?
Which of the following gland pairs DOES NOT produce hormones that regulate blood glucose levels?
Which of the following gland pairs DOES NOT produce hormones that regulate blood glucose levels?
Which of these hormones is responsible for stimulating growth in bone and muscle?
Which of these hormones is responsible for stimulating growth in bone and muscle?
Why are steroid hormones generally slower-acting than amino acid derived hormones?
Why are steroid hormones generally slower-acting than amino acid derived hormones?
What is a potential consequence of endocrine dysfunction?
What is a potential consequence of endocrine dysfunction?
What primarily stimulates the development of multiple follicles during the early follicular phase?
What primarily stimulates the development of multiple follicles during the early follicular phase?
What effect does high estradiol levels have during the early follicular phase?
What effect does high estradiol levels have during the early follicular phase?
Which hormone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation?
Which hormone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation?
During the luteal phase, which hormones are typically at low levels?
During the luteal phase, which hormones are typically at low levels?
What role does the dominant follicle play in the mid-cycle surge of LH?
What role does the dominant follicle play in the mid-cycle surge of LH?
What occurs to smaller follicles as a result of increased estrogen levels?
What occurs to smaller follicles as a result of increased estrogen levels?
What is the effect of progesterone on the endometrial glands during the luteal phase?
What is the effect of progesterone on the endometrial glands during the luteal phase?
What initiates the cycle of follicular growth after menstruation?
What initiates the cycle of follicular growth after menstruation?
How does the presence of progesterone impact LH and FSH during the luteal phase?
How does the presence of progesterone impact LH and FSH during the luteal phase?
What characterizes the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle from the uterine perspective?
What characterizes the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle from the uterine perspective?
What leads to the breakdown of the endometrial lining at the end of the luteal phase?
What leads to the breakdown of the endometrial lining at the end of the luteal phase?
What is a significant effect of the follicles in the early follicular phase?
What is a significant effect of the follicles in the early follicular phase?
What occurs during menstruation?
What occurs during menstruation?
What hormone is dominant during the luteal phase?
What hormone is dominant during the luteal phase?
What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?
What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?
Which structure is formed from the remnants of the follicle after ovulation?
Which structure is formed from the remnants of the follicle after ovulation?
What type of cervical mucus is typically present during the follicular phase?
What type of cervical mucus is typically present during the follicular phase?
What hormone secreted by the placenta is critical for maintaining early pregnancy?
What hormone secreted by the placenta is critical for maintaining early pregnancy?
Which change occurs in the uterus during the luteal phase?
Which change occurs in the uterus during the luteal phase?
What occurs around 8 to 12 weeks of gestation concerning placental hormone production?
What occurs around 8 to 12 weeks of gestation concerning placental hormone production?
Which of the following is NOT a function of trophoblast cells?
Which of the following is NOT a function of trophoblast cells?
What is the primary role of placental lactogen (hPL) during pregnancy?
What is the primary role of placental lactogen (hPL) during pregnancy?
How does progesterone affect uterine contractility during pregnancy?
How does progesterone affect uterine contractility during pregnancy?
What physiological change occurs in the cardiovascular system during pregnancy?
What physiological change occurs in the cardiovascular system during pregnancy?
Which structure does the embryo embed into during the luteal phase?
Which structure does the embryo embed into during the luteal phase?
What type of cellular change occurs in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
What type of cellular change occurs in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle?
What role does estrogen play in the uterine changes during pregnancy?
What role does estrogen play in the uterine changes during pregnancy?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the growth of the endometrial lining during the early cycle?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the growth of the endometrial lining during the early cycle?
What is the main role of progesterone during the luteal phase?
What is the main role of progesterone during the luteal phase?
What occurs during the transition to the follicular phase at the end of the cycle?
What occurs during the transition to the follicular phase at the end of the cycle?
Which of the following is a consequence of reduced estrogen after menopause?
Which of the following is a consequence of reduced estrogen after menopause?
What happens to the levels of LH and FSH after menopause due to decreased estrogen?
What happens to the levels of LH and FSH after menopause due to decreased estrogen?
At what point in the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?
At what point in the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?
Which event characterizes the follicular/proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle?
Which event characterizes the follicular/proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle?
What is one function of estrogen outside the reproductive tract?
What is one function of estrogen outside the reproductive tract?
Which statement about estrogen's role at puberty is correct?
Which statement about estrogen's role at puberty is correct?
During menopause, which change occurs regarding androgen production?
During menopause, which change occurs regarding androgen production?
Which phase follows directly after ovulation?
Which phase follows directly after ovulation?
How does estrogen affect the brain?
How does estrogen affect the brain?
What is a characteristic effect of progesterone during the luteal phase?
What is a characteristic effect of progesterone during the luteal phase?
What event occurs during the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle?
What event occurs during the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle?
What is the primary reason for the increase in cardiac output during pregnancy?
What is the primary reason for the increase in cardiac output during pregnancy?
How does blood pressure typically change during normal pregnancy?
How does blood pressure typically change during normal pregnancy?
What role does cortisol play in gestational insulin resistance?
What role does cortisol play in gestational insulin resistance?
What initiates the positive feedback loop during labor?
What initiates the positive feedback loop during labor?
What causes gestational diabetes?
What causes gestational diabetes?
What is the role of estrogen in labor initiation?
What is the role of estrogen in labor initiation?
Why is lactation not a reliable method of birth control?
Why is lactation not a reliable method of birth control?
What is one of the key physiological effects during mid to late pregnancy?
What is one of the key physiological effects during mid to late pregnancy?
What initiates the secretion of oxytocin during labor?
What initiates the secretion of oxytocin during labor?
How does the fetal adrenal gland contribute to labor timing?
How does the fetal adrenal gland contribute to labor timing?
What effect does progesterone generally have during most of pregnancy?
What effect does progesterone generally have during most of pregnancy?
What is the primary function of prolactin during lactation?
What is the primary function of prolactin during lactation?
Which hormone primarily stimulates myometrial contractions at labor?
Which hormone primarily stimulates myometrial contractions at labor?
What happens to insulin levels during pregnancy?
What happens to insulin levels during pregnancy?
What mechanism is primarily involved in increasing calcium levels in the blood?
What mechanism is primarily involved in increasing calcium levels in the blood?
Which hormone is secreted in response to high blood calcium levels to lower calcium concentration?
Which hormone is secreted in response to high blood calcium levels to lower calcium concentration?
How does parathyroid hormone promote calcium retention in the body?
How does parathyroid hormone promote calcium retention in the body?
What is one of the primary symptoms of hypercalcemia?
What is one of the primary symptoms of hypercalcemia?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by low bone mineral density?
Which of the following conditions is characterized by low bone mineral density?
What is a common cause of hypocalcemia?
What is a common cause of hypocalcemia?
Which of the following hormones indirectly activates osteoclasts by binding to osteoblasts?
Which of the following hormones indirectly activates osteoclasts by binding to osteoblasts?
What is the primary action of glucagon in the liver?
What is the primary action of glucagon in the liver?
What role does vitamin D play in calcium homeostasis?
What role does vitamin D play in calcium homeostasis?
Which factor is known to inhibit glucagon secretion?
Which factor is known to inhibit glucagon secretion?
What is a characteristic of insulin secretion in Type II diabetes during a meal?
What is a characteristic of insulin secretion in Type II diabetes during a meal?
What is the significance of DXA scans in assessing bone health?
What is the significance of DXA scans in assessing bone health?
What is the role of cortisol during fasting?
What is the role of cortisol during fasting?
Which of the following statements is true regarding osteoporosis in men?
Which of the following statements is true regarding osteoporosis in men?
Which factor is primarily associated with Type II diabetes progression?
Which factor is primarily associated with Type II diabetes progression?
What physiological mechanism does glucagon use to increase glucose output from the liver?
What physiological mechanism does glucagon use to increase glucose output from the liver?
What distinguishes epinephrine's action from that of glucagon?
What distinguishes epinephrine's action from that of glucagon?
What is a common misconception regarding treatment requirements at the onset of Type II diabetes?
What is a common misconception regarding treatment requirements at the onset of Type II diabetes?
How does rapid action of parathyroid hormone manifest within minutes?
How does rapid action of parathyroid hormone manifest within minutes?
Which of the following substances stimulates glucagon secretion?
Which of the following substances stimulates glucagon secretion?
What is one of the major differences between Type I and Type II diabetes in terms of patient symptoms at diagnosis?
What is one of the major differences between Type I and Type II diabetes in terms of patient symptoms at diagnosis?
What factor significantly affects bone strength in post-menopausal women?
What factor significantly affects bone strength in post-menopausal women?
Which medication class can increase calcium excretion in urine?
Which medication class can increase calcium excretion in urine?
During prolonged fasting, what sequential effect do glucagon and epinephrine have?
During prolonged fasting, what sequential effect do glucagon and epinephrine have?
Which population has been identified to show strong ethnic characteristics in relation to Type II diabetes?
Which population has been identified to show strong ethnic characteristics in relation to Type II diabetes?
What is a major effect of cortisol on adipose tissue?
What is a major effect of cortisol on adipose tissue?
What is the function of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis?
What is the function of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis?
What is the probable reason for the increased risk of atherosclerosis in Type II diabetes?
What is the probable reason for the increased risk of atherosclerosis in Type II diabetes?
What is a significant consequence of cortisol excess as seen in Cushing's syndrome?
What is a significant consequence of cortisol excess as seen in Cushing's syndrome?
What is a significant sign indicating kidney dysfunction in an older patient with Type II diabetes?
What is a significant sign indicating kidney dysfunction in an older patient with Type II diabetes?
Which of the following hormones has a slower effect due to its mechanism of action?
Which of the following hormones has a slower effect due to its mechanism of action?
Which of these effects is NOT caused by glucagon?
Which of these effects is NOT caused by glucagon?
Which hormone can positively influence glucagon secretion during exercise?
Which hormone can positively influence glucagon secretion during exercise?
What condition can arise from cortisol deficiency, as seen in Addison's disease?
What condition can arise from cortisol deficiency, as seen in Addison's disease?
What is the primary action of amylin in the body?
What is the primary action of amylin in the body?
How does insulin primarily affect fat tissue?
How does insulin primarily affect fat tissue?
What is the role of GLUT-4 in skeletal muscle cells?
What is the role of GLUT-4 in skeletal muscle cells?
Which hormone released from beta cells is crucial for insulin secretion when glucose levels rise?
Which hormone released from beta cells is crucial for insulin secretion when glucose levels rise?
What is the primary metabolic pathway that generates glucose from non-carbohydrate sources?
What is the primary metabolic pathway that generates glucose from non-carbohydrate sources?
Which hormone primarily promotes the synthesis of glycogen in the liver?
Which hormone primarily promotes the synthesis of glycogen in the liver?
What effect does growth hormone (GH) have on insulin sensitivity?
What effect does growth hormone (GH) have on insulin sensitivity?
Which process describes the conversion of acetyl-CoA into fatty acids?
Which process describes the conversion of acetyl-CoA into fatty acids?
Which factor is known to stimulate insulin secretion?
Which factor is known to stimulate insulin secretion?
What is the main activity of glucagon in the body?
What is the main activity of glucagon in the body?
Which hormone serves to inhibit glucagon secretion?
Which hormone serves to inhibit glucagon secretion?
What is the primary role of CCK in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism?
What is the primary role of CCK in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism?
Which of the following factors inhibits growth hormone secretion?
Which of the following factors inhibits growth hormone secretion?
Which of these hormones is considered catabolic and increases glucose levels?
Which of these hormones is considered catabolic and increases glucose levels?
What role does GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide) play in insulin secretion?
What role does GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide) play in insulin secretion?
How does insulin affect gluconeogenesis in the liver?
How does insulin affect gluconeogenesis in the liver?
What is the function of GLUT4 transporters in the body?
What is the function of GLUT4 transporters in the body?
What does insulin do to glucose concentration in the blood?
What does insulin do to glucose concentration in the blood?
What is the effect of insulin on potassium levels in cells?
What is the effect of insulin on potassium levels in cells?
Which amino acid transporter is increased by insulin in skeletal muscle?
Which amino acid transporter is increased by insulin in skeletal muscle?
Which hormone is synthesized in the pancreas and promotes fat storage?
Which hormone is synthesized in the pancreas and promotes fat storage?
What is a significant function of GLP-1 in relation to glucose regulation?
What is a significant function of GLP-1 in relation to glucose regulation?
What is the initial molecule synthesized before insulin is activated?
What is the initial molecule synthesized before insulin is activated?
What triggers the release of insulin from beta cells?
What triggers the release of insulin from beta cells?
Which hormone is known for its anabolic functions in protein synthesis?
Which hormone is known for its anabolic functions in protein synthesis?
Which organ does not respond to insulin by enhancing glycolysis and glycogen synthesis?
Which organ does not respond to insulin by enhancing glycolysis and glycogen synthesis?
Insulin actions involve various speeds. What action occurs rapidly after insulin binding?
Insulin actions involve various speeds. What action occurs rapidly after insulin binding?
How does somatostatin affect insulin and glucagon secretion?
How does somatostatin affect insulin and glucagon secretion?
What initiates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?
What initiates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Which substance inhibits iodide transport into the thyroid gland?
Which substance inhibits iodide transport into the thyroid gland?
What is the primary active form of thyroid hormone?
What is the primary active form of thyroid hormone?
How are T3 and T4 primarily transported in circulation?
How are T3 and T4 primarily transported in circulation?
Which process occurs in the formation of triiodothyronine (T3)?
Which process occurs in the formation of triiodothyronine (T3)?
What effect does high levels of T3 have on the hypothalamus?
What effect does high levels of T3 have on the hypothalamus?
In what location are thyroid hormones synthesized?
In what location are thyroid hormones synthesized?
What is the result of excess production of thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)?
What is the result of excess production of thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)?
Which enzyme is responsible for iodinating tyrosine in thyroid hormone synthesis?
Which enzyme is responsible for iodinating tyrosine in thyroid hormone synthesis?
What physiological effect is primarily increased by thyroid hormones T3 and T4?
What physiological effect is primarily increased by thyroid hormones T3 and T4?
What role does the pedrin transporter play in the thyroid gland?
What role does the pedrin transporter play in the thyroid gland?
What is the consequence of a lack of iodine in thyroid hormone synthesis?
What is the consequence of a lack of iodine in thyroid hormone synthesis?
What is the primary biological activity of T3 compared to T4?
What is the primary biological activity of T3 compared to T4?
Which factor can lead to decreased levels of albumin and affect thyroid hormone binding?
Which factor can lead to decreased levels of albumin and affect thyroid hormone binding?
What is reverse T3 (RT3)?
What is reverse T3 (RT3)?
What is the primary effect of insulin in the fed state?
What is the primary effect of insulin in the fed state?
Which hormone primarily helps in mobilizing stored fuel during the fasting state?
Which hormone primarily helps in mobilizing stored fuel during the fasting state?
What triggers the secretion of growth hormone during fasting?
What triggers the secretion of growth hormone during fasting?
During extended fasting, what effect does cortisol have on the body?
During extended fasting, what effect does cortisol have on the body?
In a patient with diabetes, what is the significance of A1C levels over 6.5%?
In a patient with diabetes, what is the significance of A1C levels over 6.5%?
What is a key characteristic of Type I diabetes?
What is a key characteristic of Type I diabetes?
Which of the following symptoms is NOT typically associated with Type I diabetes?
Which of the following symptoms is NOT typically associated with Type I diabetes?
What defines a fasting plasma glucose level indicating diabetes?
What defines a fasting plasma glucose level indicating diabetes?
In starvation, what happens to glucagon secretion?
In starvation, what happens to glucagon secretion?
What is a common symptom in patients with Type II diabetes?
What is a common symptom in patients with Type II diabetes?
What does a urine microalbumin level of 45 mg indicate in a diabetic patient?
What does a urine microalbumin level of 45 mg indicate in a diabetic patient?
What is the primary metabolic consequence of glucagon secretion during fasting?
What is the primary metabolic consequence of glucagon secretion during fasting?
What is the primary role of ketones during prolonged starvation?
What is the primary role of ketones during prolonged starvation?
Which of the following is NOT a modifiable factor directly influencing bone strength?
Which of the following is NOT a modifiable factor directly influencing bone strength?
What is the primary function of osteoclasts in bone remodeling?
What is the primary function of osteoclasts in bone remodeling?
Which of the following is TRUE about the relationship between bone mineral density (BMD) and fracture risk?
Which of the following is TRUE about the relationship between bone mineral density (BMD) and fracture risk?
Which of the following cells is responsible for initiating the bone remodeling cycle?
Which of the following cells is responsible for initiating the bone remodeling cycle?
Which of the following hormones directly promotes osteoclast formation and activity?
Which of the following hormones directly promotes osteoclast formation and activity?
What is the main function of osteoprotegerin (OPG) in bone remodeling?
What is the main function of osteoprotegerin (OPG) in bone remodeling?
Which of the following pathways for calcium absorption across intestinal epithelium is influenced by calcitriol?
Which of the following pathways for calcium absorption across intestinal epithelium is influenced by calcitriol?
Which of the following organs is NOT involved in calcium homeostasis?
Which of the following organs is NOT involved in calcium homeostasis?
What is the primary effect of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on calcium levels in the blood?
What is the primary effect of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on calcium levels in the blood?
Which of the following is NOT a source of vitamin D?
Which of the following is NOT a source of vitamin D?
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding hypocalcemia?
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding hypocalcemia?
Which type of bone is metabolically more active and is found in vertebrae and ends of long bones?
Which type of bone is metabolically more active and is found in vertebrae and ends of long bones?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the roles of collagen and minerals in bone?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the roles of collagen and minerals in bone?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the bone remodeling process?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the bone remodeling process?
Which of the following is an example of a hormone that inhibits parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion?
Which of the following is an example of a hormone that inhibits parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion?
Flashcards
Endocrine System Function
Endocrine System Function
Regulates biological processes and maintains homeostasis.
Speed of Hormone Action
Speed of Hormone Action
Hormone action can be fast (seconds) or slow (days).
Examples of Fast-Acting Hormones
Examples of Fast-Acting Hormones
Epinephrine and norepinephrine respond quickly during stress.
Examples of Slow-Acting Hormones
Examples of Slow-Acting Hormones
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Hormones of the Hypothalamus
Hormones of the Hypothalamus
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Types of Hormone Signaling
Types of Hormone Signaling
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Amino Acid Derived Hormones
Amino Acid Derived Hormones
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Function of Insulin and Glucagon
Function of Insulin and Glucagon
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Circadian Secretion
Circadian Secretion
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Episodic Secretion
Episodic Secretion
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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HPA Axis
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HPG Axis
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HPT Axis
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Negative Feedback
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Hypo-secretion
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Primary Pituitary Hormones
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Somatostatin
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GHRH
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Protein and Peptide Hormones
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Examples of Protein Hormones
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Steroid Hormones
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Hydrophilic Hormones vs. Lipophilic Hormones
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Receptor Location of Hormones
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Half-life of Hormones
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Binding Proteins
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Mechanism of Action: Protein Hormones
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Mechanism of Action: Steroid Hormones
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Stimuli for Hormone Secretion
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Adrenal Gland Structure
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Circadian Hormone Secretion
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Episodic Hormone Secretion
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Neurotransmitters
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DHT (Dihydrotestosterone)
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LH (Luteinizing Hormone)
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FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone)
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Hypogonadism
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Low Testosterone Effects
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Exogenous Steroid Use
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Ovulation
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Follicular Phase
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Luteal Phase
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Corpus Luteum
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Negative Feedback in Menstrual Cycle
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Follicle Development
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Estradiol's Role
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Androgens Conversion
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Ovarian Hormonal Interplay
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Testosterone
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Estrogen
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Androgen-to-Estrogen Ratio
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Hormone Secretion Pattern (Male)
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Hormone Secretion Pattern (Female)
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LH
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FSH
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Sertoli Cells
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Leydig Cells
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Granulosa Cells
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Thecal Cells
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Negative Feedback (Males)
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Feedback Mechanism (Females)
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Testosterone Action Mechanism
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Ovarian Phase
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Uterine Phase
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Progesterone
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Effects of Estrogen
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Effects of Progesterone
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Aromatase Role
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Menopause
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Endometrial Changes
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Cervical Mucus
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Estrogen's Role in Follicle Development
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Primordial Follicles at Birth
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Corpus Luteum Function
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Luteal Phase Hormones
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Negative Feedback Mechanism
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Late Follicular Phase Changes
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Ovulation Trigger
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Endometrial Changes in Follicular Phase
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Progesterone in Luteal Phase
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Menstruation Process
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Follicle Sensitivity
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Regressed Follicles
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Early Follicular Phase
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Secretory Phase
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Functions of Bones
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Cortical Bone
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Trabecular Bone
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Bone Makeup
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Peak Bone Strength Age
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Bone Mineral Density (BMD)
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Osteoclasts
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Bone Remodeling Goal
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RANKL
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Parathyroid Hormone Function
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Vitamin D Sources
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Calcium Reabsorption Locations
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Positive Feedback Loop
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Progesterone's Function
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Fetal Role in Labor Timing
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Prolactin's Role in Lactation
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Colostrum
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Milk Ejection Reflex
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Bone Remodeling
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Osteoporosis Risk
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Dominant Hormone in Follicular Phase
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Dominant Hormone in Luteal Phase
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Cervical Mucus in Follicular Phase
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Cervical Mucus in Luteal Phase
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Fertilization Window in Follicular Phase
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Fertilization Window in Luteal Phase
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Placenta Formation
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HCG Hormone
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Placental Shift
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Physiological Changes During Pregnancy
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Myometrium Changes
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Pregnancy and Hormonal Axis
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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis
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Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
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Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
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Thyroid Hormones T3 and T4
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Iodination
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Muscle and Bone Growth
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Negative Feedback Loop
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Binding Proteins for Thyroid Hormones
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Physiological Effects of T3
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Reverse T3 (RT3)
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Factors Affecting Hormone Production
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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
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Calcitonin
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Hypocalcemia
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DXA Scan
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Risk Factors for Osteoporosis
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Symptoms of Hypercalcemia
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Primary Hyperparathyroidism
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C-peptide Chain
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Insulin's Major Function
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Genetic Concordance in Type II Diabetes
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Impaired Glucose Tolerance
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Insulin Response in Type II Diabetes
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First-Phase Insulin Secretion
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Role of Obesity in Type II Diabetes
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Gestational Diabetes
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Ethnic Predisposition
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Total T4 and T3
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Central Hypothyroidism
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Primary Hyperthyroidism
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Grave's Disease
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Effects of Thyroid Hormones
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Half-life of Free T4
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Reference Range for TSH
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Hypothyroidism Treatment Goals
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Thyroid Hormone Production
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Glycogenolysis
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Mechanism of Action of Glucagon
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Stimuli for Glucagon Release
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Addison's Disease
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Hormonal Interaction
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Protein Metabolism during Fasting
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Factors Reducing Glucagon Secretion
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Hormonal Receptors Effect
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Fed State Effect
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Insulin Function
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Glucagon Role
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Epinephrine Function
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Growth Hormone Release
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Extended Fasting Effects
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Starvation Hormones
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Diabetes Diagnosis: Fasting Plasma Glucose
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A1C Test Significance
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Type I Diabetes Characteristics
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Type II Diabetes Features
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OGTT Process
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Pre-diabetes Definition
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Ketoacidosis Symptoms
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Amylin
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Insulin Actions in Fat Tissue
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Insulin Actions in Skeletal Muscle
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Insulin Actions in the Liver
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Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion
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Factors Affecting Insulin Secretion
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GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide)
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GLP-1 (Glucagon-like peptide-1)
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Growth Hormone (GH) Effects
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IGF-1 Functions
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Insulin and Glucose Uptake
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HSL (Hormone-sensitive lipase)
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Insulin Sensitivity
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Study Notes
Diabetes Diagnosis Criteria
- Fasting Plasma Glucose: Over 126 mg/dL (no calorie intake for at least 8 hours)
- 2-Hour Postprandial Glucose: Over 200 mg/dL (measured after OGTT or meal)
- Random Plasma Glucose: Over 200 mg/dL (with symptoms: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia)
- A1C (Glycated Hemoglobin): Over 6.5% (average glucose over the past few months)
- A1C is a percentage of glycated red blood cells.
- Higher glucose means more binding to red blood cells.
- A1C reflects average blood glucose in the previous few months.
- Estimated Average Glucose Level = (28.7 x A1C value) - 46.7.
- Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Measures plasma glucose after a glucose challenge.
- Patients consume 75 grams of glucose dissolved in water.
- Fasting glucose is measured before the drink.
- Glucose levels are measured at various times (e.g., 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hrs)
- Normal Individual: Fasting <100 mg/dL, 2-hr <140 mg/dL, no value over 200 mg/dL.
- Pre-diabetes: Values between normal and diabetic levels.
Diabetes Classification
- Type I Diabetes (IDDM): Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (less than 10% of cases)
- Insulin deficiency due to autoimmune attack on pancreatic beta cells.
- Autoimmune disease, with T-cells as mediators.
- Autoantibodies (ICA, IAA, GAD, IA-2) are present.
- Often abrupt onset, often in younger patients (50% before 21).
- Lean body build is common.
- Untreated type 1 diabetes can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis.
- Low or absent insulin.
- Type II Diabetes (NIDDM): Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (over 8% of US population; 30-50% undiagnosed)
- Insulin resistance, with gradual onset and less dramatic symptoms than type I.
- Often adult-onset; Increasing in children due to obesity.
- Overweight or obesity is a major factor.
- Insulin insensitivity is the main issue; initially managed with oral medications.
- Often undiagnosed for years; 30% need insulin eventually.
- Impaired glucose tolerance with elevated fasting glucose levels,
- Reduced insulin secretion with disease progression
- Reduced GLUT-2 transporter expression, suppressed first phase insulin secretion.
- Associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome (dyslipidemia, increased free fatty acids).
- Gestational Diabetes: Glucose intolerance developing during pregnancy (diagnosed typically in the 3rd trimester)
- Other Types: Drug-induced diabetes (e.g., glucocorticoids, thyroid hormone, diuretics)
Type I Diabetes (Patient Case 1)
- 22-year-old male with 497 blood glucose, lethargy, polyuria, polydipsia, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, lean body build, daily alcohol use, and marijuana smoking.
- Low carbon dioxide (18 mEq/L) and ketones in urine indicate likely ketoacidosis.
Type II Diabetes (Patient Case 2)
- 69-year-old male with 2-year history of type 2 diabetes, non-compliant with glyburide, BMI 31.3 (obese), fasting glucose 166, and A1C 8.1.
- Urine microalbumin 45 mg (normal <30mg) indicates kidney dysfunction.
Important Differences Between Type I and Type II Diabetes
| Feature | Type I Diabetes | Type II Diabetes |
|---|---|---|
| Onset | Abrupt | Gradual |
| Body Build | Lean | Obese or history of obese |
| Insulin Resistance | Absent | Present |
| Autoantibodies | Present | Rare |
| Symptomatic at Diagnosis | Very symptomatic | Often asymptomatic |
| Ketones Present | Usually present | Usually absent |
| Need for Insulin | Immediate | Not immediate, may require insulin |
| Complications | Diabetic ketoacidosis | Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) |
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