Bio 11.2 part 1 Endocrine System and Neurohormones
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary effect of ADH on kidney nephron tubules?

  • It decreases blood volume.
  • It increases the permeability to water. (correct)
  • It stimulates the secretion of electrolytes.
  • It promotes glucose reabsorption.

    • What occurs when blood volume increases or blood osmolarity decreases?

  • Aquaporins are removed from the kidney tubules. (correct)
  • Blood pressure increases.
  • Less ADH is released. (correct)
  • More ADH is released.

    • How does oxytocin function during childbirth?

  • It stimulates milk production.
  • It decreases uterine contractions.
  • It increases uterine contractions in a positive feedback loop. (correct)
  • It maintains blood volume.

    • Which hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?

    <p>ACTH and growth hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do neurohormones from the hypothalamus play in the anterior pituitary?

    <p>They regulate the synthesis and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

    <p>Stimulating red blood cell production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is classified as a tropic peptide hormone from the anterior pituitary?

    <p>Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormones are released by the adrenal medulla?

    <p>Epinephrine and norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of feedback mechanism does oxytocin use during childbirth?

    <p>Positive feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does epinephrine affect blood vessels?

    <p>It causes vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of pathway does the stress response exemplify?

    <p>A neuroendocrine pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of hypothalamic tropic hormones?

    <p>They influence the secretion of other hormones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a portal system in the body?

    <p>Blood circulating through two capillary beds connected in series.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus promote homeostasis through negative feedback loops?

    <p>By inhibiting the synthesis and secretion of hormones as their serum levels rise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)?

    <p>It promotes the release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT a characteristic of hypothalamic-pituitary interaction?

    <p>Hormones traveling throughout the entire bloodstream before acting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What must occur for prolactin secretion to happen?

    <p>Inhibition of prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is produced by the adrenal cortex?

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the posterior pituitary?

    <p>Storing hormones released from the hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is released in response to infant suckling?

    <p>Prolactin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is NOT stored in the posterior pituitary?

    <p>Thyroid hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of glucocorticoids such as cortisol?

    <p>Increase blood glucose levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus respond to changes in atrial stretching?

    <p>By signaling for adjustment in ADH secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly represents the regulation of growth hormone (GH)?

    <p>Stimulated by GHRH, inhibited by somatostatin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary?

    <p>The hypothalamus produces hormones that control the posterior pituitary.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla hormones?

    <p>Mediating the stress response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process explains the release of neurohormones from the posterior pituitary?

    <p>Exocytosis of neurosecretory vesicles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the adrenal cortex promote during stress?

    <p>Energy utilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue does the posterior pituitary originate from?

    <p>Ectodermal neural tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What inhibits the secretion of prolactin?

    <p>High progesterone levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is NOT regulated by the hypothalamus?

    <p>Sight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

    <p>Regulates body water content</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of glucagon when blood glucose levels are low?

    <p>Stimulates gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is inhibited by insulin during hyperglycemia?

    <p>Glycogenolysis in the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In type 1 diabetes mellitus, what is the main cause of low insulin production?

    <p>Pancreatic beta cell destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does glucagon affect glucose uptake by peripheral tissues?

    <p>It decreases glucose uptake.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes type 2 diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Insulin resistance and increased liver glucose production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do catecholamines play in the action of glucagon?

    <p>Stimulate glucagon release and promote glycogenolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does insulin have on fat synthesis?

    <p>Stimulates fat synthesis by promoting glucose transport into adipocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding insulin's effects during hyperglycemia?

    <p>It facilitates the translocation of glucose transporters to the plasma membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

    <p>To serve as the critical interface between the nervous and endocrine systems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do neuroendocrine pathways primarily involve?

    <p>The release of hormones or neurohormones based on neural signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does the hypothalamus regulate hormone secretion?

    <p>By receiving sensory input and responding with either neural or endocrine signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the endocrine system and nervous system work together?

    <p>By creating neuroendocrine pathways that influence body processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when the hypothalamus senses stress?

    <p>It sends electrical signals to the adrenal medulla via sympathetic neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the hypothalamus in regulating hormone release?

    <p>It serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes neuroendocrine pathways?

    <p>They are pathways that release hormones from endocrine cells or neurohormones from neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the endocrine system considered a high-yield topic for exams?

    <p>It integrates functions of multiple body systems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus respond to changes detected in hormone plasma concentrations?

    <p>It adjusts its stimulation of the pituitary gland based on these changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do neural signals play in the stress response as regulated by the hypothalamus?

    <p>They trigger electrical signals to the adrenal medulla.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) on blood volume and osmolarity?

    <p>ADH increases blood volume while decreasing osmolarity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what scenario would less ADH be released into the bloodstream?

    <p>When blood volume increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition showcases a positive feedback mechanism in the body?

    <p>The release of oxytocin during childbirth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of tropic peptide hormones released from the anterior pituitary?

    <p>They stimulate the production of hormones in other endocrine glands.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the role of oxytocin besides its function during childbirth?

    <p>It stimulates milk ejection during breastfeeding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Adrenaline and Noradrenaline

    • Adrenaline and noradrenaline are neurohormones released by the adrenal medulla, located atop the kidneys.
    • They are transported in the blood and bind to receptors in specific cells to cause responses to stress.
    • Epinephrine binding to receptors in the smooth muscle of blood vessels causes vasoconstriction, increasing blood pressure.

    Hypothalamic-Pituitary Control Axis

    • The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system through releasing and inhibiting factors, which are tropic hormones that influence endocrine responses.
    • These factors act on the anterior pituitary gland via the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system.
    • The hypothalamic-pituitary portal system consists of two capillary beds connected by small portal veins, allowing hypothalamic hormones to remain concentrated.
    • An example is the regulation of growth hormone (GH) release, where growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) from the hypothalamus travels to the anterior pituitary via portal veins, stimulating GH release.

    Negative Feedback Loops

    • The hypothalamus regulates hormone levels through negative feedback loops.
    • When the serum level of a hormone rises, it inhibits the signaling pathway that promotes its own synthesis and secretion.
    • This ensures a constant appropriate level of hormones in the body.

    Posterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The posterior pituitary is not a typical endocrine gland, but rather a storage site for neurohormones released from hypothalamic neurons.
    • The two main neurohormones stored and released are antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and oxytocin.

    Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

    • ADH is involved in regulating body water content.
    • Stretch receptors in the heart monitor blood volume entering the atria and transmit this information to the hypothalamus.
    • The hypothalamus also monitors blood osmolarity.
    • When blood volume decreases or blood osmolarity increases, the hypothalamus signals the posterior pituitary to release ADH.
    • ADH causes the insertion of aquaporins (water channels) into kidney nephron tubules, increasing water reabsorption into the bloodstream.
    • This increases blood volume and decreases blood osmolarity back to homeostatic levels.

    Oxytocin

    • Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary in response to pressure against the cervix during childbirth.
    • Oxytocin release increases uterine contractions, further stimulating its own release in a positive feedback loop until parturition.
    • Oxytocin also targets mammary glands to stimulate milk ejection during breastfeeding.

    Anterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is made up of glandular endocrine tissue containing different cell types that synthesize and secrete tropic peptide hormones.
    • These include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
    • The anterior pituitary also secretes direct peptide hormones: β-endorphins, growth hormone (GH), and prolactin.
    • The synthesis and secretion of many anterior pituitary hormones are controlled by tropic neurohormones released by hypothalamic neurons.

    Adrenal Hormones

    • The adrenal glands are located atop each kidney, subdivided into the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
    • The adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids, which include glucocorticoids like cortisol and cortisone.
    • Glucocorticoids increase blood glucose by promoting gluconeogenesis in the liver and lipolysis to provide energy for gluconeogenesis.
    • They also suppress the immune system.

    Glucagon

    • Glucagon is a peptide hormone produced and secreted by alpha cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans.
    • Glucagon's primary function is to increase blood glucose levels when they are low (hypoglycemia).
    • It acts on target cells by binding to G protein-coupled receptors, activating the adenylate cyclase/cAMP second messenger cascade.
    • This promotes gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in the liver, raising blood glucose levels.
    • Glucagon also limits glucose use in insulin-sensitive tissues and decreases glucose uptake by peripheral tissues.

    Insulin

    • Insulin is a peptide hormone produced and secreted by beta cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans.
    • Insulin's primary function is to lower blood glucose levels when they are high (hyperglycemia).
    • Insulin binds to insulin receptors, causing translocation of glucose transporters to the plasma membrane of target cells.
    • This allows increased rates of glucose uptake, promoting glycogenesis in the liver and muscle.
    • Insulin also stimulates fat synthesis and protein synthesis, increasing fat and protein stores for use during the fasted state.
    • Insulin inhibits glucagon release, decreases liver gluconeogenesis, and decreases liver and muscle glycogenolysis.

    Diabetes Mellitus

    • Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterized by hyperglycemia.
    • Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent) occurs due to low or absent insulin production caused by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells.
    • Type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent) is characterized by insulin resistance and increased glucose production by the liver.

    Hypothalamic Hormones

    • The hypothalamus regulates the synthesis and secretion of multiple hormone classes
    • The structure is located inferior to the thalamus
    • The hypothalamus serves as the interface between the nervous and endocrine systems
    • The hypothalamus controls body-wide endocrine function by influencing activity within the pituitary gland
    • The hypothalamus produces hormones for storage in, and release from, the posterior pituitary

    Posterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The pituitary gland consists of the anterior and posterior lobes
    • The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) is derived from ectodermal neural tissue in the developing brain
    • The posterior pituitary is a storage site for hormones released from hypothalamic neurons
    • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and oxytocin are stored and released by the posterior pituitary
    • ADH is involved in the regulation of body water content.
    • Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary in response to pressure against the cervix during childbirth.

    Anterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The anterior pituitary (also known as the adenohypophysis) is made up of glandular endocrine tissue containing different cell types that synthesize and secrete several tropic peptide hormones
    • These tropic peptide hormones include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
    • The anterior pituitary also secretes several direct peptide hormones: β-endorphins, growth hormone (GH), and prolactin.

    Adrenal Hormones

    • The capsule-covered adrenal glands are located atop each kidney.
    • The adrenal cortex is responsible for producing three classes of corticosteroids
    • The first corticosteroid class consists of glucocorticoids, including cortisol and cortisone.
    • Glucocorticoids function to increase blood glucose
    • Mineralocorticoids, the second corticosteroid class, are produced by the zona glomerulosa, a layer of cells in the adrenal cortex.
    • Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid, causes increased reabsorption of sodium and water by the kidneys and the secretion of potassium into the urine.
    • Gonadocorticoids, the third corticosteroid class, are produced by the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex.

    Pancreatic Hormones

    • The pancreas is an organ with both exocrine and endocrine functions.
    • Alpha cells produce the peptide hormone glucagon.
    • Beta cells produce the peptide hormone insulin.
    • Delta cells produce somatostatin, a peptide hormone that has a generalized inhibitory effect on digestive function and has been shown to suppress insulin and glucagon release.
    • The products of alpha and beta cells (ie, glucagon and insulin) are critical in maintaining glucose homeostasis.
    • In the fasted state, circulating blood glucose levels are maintained due to the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver (ie, glycogenolysis) and through gluconeogenesis.
    • In the fed state, blood glucose levels initially increase because glucose is absorbed from the digestive system lumen into the bloodstream, from which glucose can be taken up by tissues and stored as glycogen (ie, glycogenesis).

    Hypothalamic Hormones

    • The hypothalamus is a brain structure that links the nervous and endocrine systems.
    • The hypothalamus secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the endocrine system.
    • The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which is an endocrine organ located inferior to the hypothalamus.
    • The hypothalamic-pituitary portal system allows hypothalamic hormones to act directly on the anterior pituitary, by travelling in the blood through two capillary beds connected by a small portal vein.
    • The hypothalamic-pituitary portal system is an example of a negative feedback loop where rising hormones in the blood inhibit further hormone release from the anterior pituitary.

    Anterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The anterior pituitary secretes tropic hormones that regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.
    • The anterior pituitary secretes growth hormone (GH) which is stimulated by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) from the hypothalamus.
    • The anterior pituitary releases Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) that regulates the thyroid gland.
    • The anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that regulates the adrenal glands.
    • The anterior pituitary releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) that regulate the gonads.
    • The anterior pituitary releases prolactin that stimulates milk production in mammary glands.

    Posterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
    • The posterior pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which acts on the kidneys to increase water reabsorption.
    • The posterior pituitary releases oxytocin which acts on the uterus to stimulate uterine contractions during labor and on mammary glands to stimulate milk ejection.

    Thyroid Hormones

    • The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
    • T3 and T4 increase basal metabolic rate (BMR), affect protein synthesis, and regulate calcium homeostasis.
    • Thyroid hormone synthesis is stimulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary, and suppressed by negative feedback from T3 and T4 in the bloodstream.

    Parathyroid Hormone

    • The parathyroid glands secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) which increases blood calcium levels.
    • PTH stimulates osteoclast activity which breaks down bone and releases calcium, and promotes reabsorption of calcium in the kidney.

    Pancreatic Hormones

    • The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon which regulate blood glucose.
    • Insulin lowers blood glucose level by increasing glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue.
    • Glucagon raises blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose) and gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose form non-carbohydrate sources) in the liver.

    Adrenal Glands

    • The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys, and consist of two layers: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

    Adrenal Cortex Hormones

    • The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids which are steroid hormones.
    • The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids which regulate blood glucose levels.
    • The adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids which regulate blood pressure and blood volume.
    • The adrenal cortex secretes cortical sex hormones which are androgens and estrogens, that contribute to sexual development and function.

    Adrenal Medulla Hormones

    • The adrenal medulla releases catecholamines which are amino acid-derived hormones.
    • The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine which are released in response to stress, and they increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

    Renal Hormones

    • The kidneys produce erythropoietin (EPO) which stimulates production of red blood cells.
    • The kidneys activate vitamin D to calcitriol which promotes calcium absorption from the intestines and reabsorption in the kidneys.

    Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

    • ADH is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
    • When blood volume is reduced or blood osmolarity is increased, ADH is released.
    • ADH causes aquaporins (water channels) to be inserted into kidney nephron tubules.
    • Increased aquaporin insertion increases water permeability in the nephrons, leading to more water reabsorption into the bloodstream.
    • This reabsorption increases blood volume and decreases blood osmolarity back to homeostatic levels.

    Oxytocin

    • Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary gland in response to pressure against the cervix during childbirth.
    • Oxytocin release increases uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates more oxytocin release, creating a positive feedback loop.
    • The positive feedback loop continues until parturition (childbirth).
    • Oxytocin also stimulates milk ejection in mammary glands during breastfeeding.

    Anterior Pituitary Hormones

    • The anterior pituitary gland is made up of glandular endocrine tissue and produces several tropic peptide hormones.
    • Tropic hormones include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
    • The anterior pituitary also releases direct peptide hormones, including β-endorphins, growth hormone (GH), and prolactin.
    • The secretion of many anterior pituitary hormones is controlled by tropic neurohormones released by hypothalamic neurons.

    Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

    • ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to promote the synthesis and secretion of glucocorticoids.
    • Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, increase blood glucose levels and mediate the stress response.
    • The secretion of ACTH is promoted by the hypothalamus through corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).
    • The HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal pathway) regulates glucocorticoid secretion, with negative feedback occurring from glucocorticoids on CRH and ACTH release.

    Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

    • FSH and LH regulate reproductive function by acting as gonadotropic hormones.
    • FSH stimulates follicle maturation in ovaries and spermatogenesis in testes.
    • LH stimulates estrogen production and ovulation in ovaries and promotes spermatogenesis and testosterone synthesis in testes.
    • The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), promoting the release of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary.
    • Estrogens and testosterone negatively feedback on the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH.

    Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

    • TSH acts on the thyroid gland to stimulate the production of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
    • Thyroid hormones increase cellular metabolism and other bodily processes.
    • TSH secretion is controlled by the hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) through the HPT axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid pathway).
    • Thyroid hormones negatively feedback on the release of TRH and TSH.

    Glucocorticoids

    • Glucocorticoids increase blood glucose levels, primarily through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.
    • Glucocorticoids also promote protein breakdown to amino acids for use in protein synthesis or ATP production.
    • They have anti-inflammatory effects.
    • Glucocorticoid secretion is regulated by the HPA axis.

    Mineralocorticoids

    • Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, regulate blood pressure and blood volume.
    • Aldosterone acts on nephron distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to promote sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion.
    • This reabsorption leads to higher interstitial fluid osmolarity, causing water reabsorption into the interstitial fluid and bloodstream through osmosis.
    • Aldosterone release is primarily controlled by the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in response to low blood pressure.

    Cortical Sex Hormones

    • Cortical sex hormones include androgens (male sex steroids) and estrogens (female sex steroids).

    Catecholamines

    • Catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, are released by the adrenal medulla during stress.
    • They have a variety of effects, including:
      • Vasoconstriction through α-adrenergic receptors, reducing blood flow to nonessential organs.
      • Vasodilation through β-adrenergic receptors, increasing blood flow to essential organs like the brain, lungs, and skeletal muscles.
      • Increased heart rate and cardiac muscle contractility, promoting blood flow.
      • Bronchodilation, increasing respiratory function and oxygen delivery.
      • The complete stress response involves both catecholamines and glucocorticoids.
      • Catecholamines mediate rapid responses to immediate stressors.
      • Glucocorticoids mediate slower responses to long-term stressors.
      • Prolonged high levels of glucocorticoids can have negative effects, such as immune suppression.

    Kidney

    • The kidney possesses endocrine function through the production of erythropoietin (EPO).
    • EPO production is stimulated by decreased oxygen levels in the blood delivered to the kidneys.
    • EPO reaches target cells in the red bone marrow through the bloodstream and stimulates red blood cell production.
    • Increased red blood cell production raises blood oxygen content to homeostatic levels.
    • The kidney is also involved in the activation of vitamin D to calcitriol (vitamin D3).
    • Calcitriol promotes calcium absorption from ingested food in the small intestine and reabsorption of calcium in the nephron tubules.
    • Calcitriol activation leads to an overall increase in serum calcium levels.

    Pancreas

    • The pancreas is an organ with both exocrine and endocrine functions.
    • The exocrine pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes like pancreatic lipase and pancreatic amylase into the duodenum for digestion.
    • The endocrine pancreas consists of islets of Langerhans, containing three cell types.
      • Alpha cells produce glucagon.
      • Beta cells produce insulin.
      • Delta cells produce somatostatin.
    • Glucagon and insulin are critical in maintaining glucose homeostasis.
    • Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
    • Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose uptake by cells and promoting glucose storage as glycogen.

    Glucose Homeostasis

    • Blood glucose levels are maintained through the interplay of glucagon and insulin.
    • In the fasted state, glucagon promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, maintaining blood glucose levels.
    • In the fed state, insulin allows cells to uptake glucose and store it as glycogen, lowering blood glucose levels.
    • Glucose serves as a source of metabolic intermediates and an energy substrate for ATP generation.

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    Description

    Explore the roles of adrenaline and noradrenaline in the body's response to stress, as well as the hypothalamic-pituitary control axis that regulates endocrine functions. This quiz covers key concepts related to how these hormones affect physiological processes and the mechanisms of hormone release. Test your knowledge on neurohormones and the endocrine system!

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