Endocrine Function and Glucose Regulation

A cluster of metabolic factors found in individuals who are prone to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and stroke, characterized by insulin resistance, abdominal obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, pro-thrombotic state, and inflammation.

A condition where the body cannot properly regulate glucose metabolism, leading to high blood sugar levels. This can cause a variety of symptoms, including frequent urination, excessive thirst, constant hunger, and unexplained weight loss.

The process where glucose is broken down into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH. It's the first step in glucose metabolism that occurs in the cytoplasm.

A cyclic series of reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2 in the mitochondria.

The process of storing excess glucose as glycogen, primarily in the liver and muscles.

The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose, releasing it into the bloodstream when needed.

The process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.

A complex signalling cascade initiated by insulin binding to its receptor on the cell surface, involving phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, second messengers, and protein interactions, leading to various metabolic effects.

A condition where there is an excess of glucose in the bloodstream. This typically occurs when the body is unable to use glucose properly due to insufficient insulin or insulin resistance.

A serious condition where there are not enough insulin receptors on cell membranes, impairing blood sugar regulation and affecting many developmental processes.

The process of breaking down large molecules into smaller units, often for the purpose of energy production.

The process of building larger molecules from smaller ones, often for growth and repair.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that is the body's only hypoglycemic agent, meaning it lowers blood sugar levels.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that plays a key role in raising blood sugar levels. It counteracts insulin's effects and promotes glycogen breakdown.

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that promotes gluconeogenesis (production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources), contributing to increased blood sugar levels.

Insulin and glucagon work together to regulate glucose levels in the blood.

In a fasting state, the body breaks down glycogen stores and uses amino acids and fatty acids for energy.

The liver, muscles, and heart use fatty acids as fuel when carbohydrates are limited.

After a meal, insulin levels rise and glucose uptake increases, leading to a small increase in blood sugar.

Diabetes is characterized by abnormal glucose production and metabolism.

Type 1 Diabetes is caused by insufficient insulin production, leading to high blood sugar and the risk of ketoacidosis.

Type 2 Diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance, meaning cells don't respond well to insulin, leading to high blood sugar.

Diabetics often have elevated blood free fatty acids and ketones in their fasting state due to increased reliance on fat and protein for energy.

A serious diabetes complication characterized by extremely high blood sugar (over 600 mg/dL), high serum osmolality (over 350 mOsm/kg), dehydration, and a lack of ketones. It can lead to coma and death if untreated.

A blood test that assesses how quickly the body clears glucose from the blood after a meal or a glucose load. It helps diagnose diabetes by testing blood sugar levels at specific times after eating.

A test that measures how well the body processes glucose after a standardized glucose load. It involves fasting overnight and then consuming a specific amount of glucose, followed by blood sugar measurements at intervals.

The standard conditions for conducting an OGTT include a minimum carbohydrate intake for 3 days prior, a minimum 8-hour fast before the test, and being ambulatory. Exercise and emotional stress should be avoided.

A blood glucose level of 200 mg/dL or higher 2 hours after a 75g glucose load during an OGTT is suggestive of diabetes.

In healthy individuals, blood glucose levels peak around 30 minutes after a glucose load and return to normal within 2 hours. In diabetic individuals, the peak occurs later (around 60 minutes) and returns to normal more slowly (over 3 hours).

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) has no relationship with blood insulin levels and individuals with T2D don't typically require insulin injections. They are also less prone to ketoacidosis compared to type 1 diabetes.

Secondary diabetes is not a primary condition but arises as a consequence of other underlying medical issues or conditions. These conditions can disrupt the body's normal glucose regulation.

Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), previously known as pre-diabetes, describes a state where blood sugar levels are higher than normal but not yet classified as diabetes. It is often a precursor to developing type 2 diabetes.

Gestational diabetes (GD) is a temporary form of diabetes that develops during pregnancy. It is common for individuals with GD to develop type 2 diabetes later in life.

The increased nutritional demands during pregnancy, the surge in adipose cells, and heightened secretion of hyperglycemic hormones like human placental lactogene all contribute to the development of gestational diabetes.

Diabetes can lead to various complications in different parts of the body. Some common complications include retinopathy (eye damage), neuropathy (nerve damage), angiopathy (blood vessel damage), nephropathy (kidney damage), increased susceptibility to infections, hyperlipidemia (high blood fats), ketoacidosis, and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic coma (HHNC). These complications are often more frequent in type 1 diabetes than type 2 diabetes.

Diabetics often show abnormal levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) in their blood. Additionally, their high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels are frequently lower compared to non-diabetics.

Ketoacid production normally occurs at a low level in non-diabetic individuals. However, in diabetics, insulin deficiency leads to the release of fatty acids from fat stores. This increased fatty acid oxidation results in excessive ketoacid production. The excess ketoacids consume bicarbonate in the blood, leading to a decrease in blood pH (acidosis). Diabetic ketoacidosis can be fatal in some cases.

Plasma insulin levels measured after a glucose load help differentiate between type 1 and type 2 diabetes. In healthy individuals, insulin levels peak within an hour and normalize after 2-3 hours. People with type 1 diabetes show minimal or no insulin increase, while those with type 2 diabetes exhibit a delayed and often excessive insulin surge.

A blood test measuring the amount of glucose in the blood after fasting overnight. A fasting blood glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL on two separate occasions is indicative of diabetes.

A blood test that can be done at any time of the day. A random blood glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL, along with symptoms of diabetes, is a strong indicator of diabetes.

A modified form of hemoglobin (HbA1c) formed by the binding of glucose to hemoglobin. It reflects the average blood sugar levels over the lifespan of red blood cells (approximately 120 days). A HbA1c level greater than or equal to 6.5% is diagnostic of diabetes.

Increased excretion of albumin in the urine, indicative of early kidney damage.

The inability of cells to respond properly to insulin, leading to elevated blood glucose levels. This is a key factor in the development of type 2 diabetes.